Teaching Students with Learning Difficulties: Why Some People Learn Differently and Effective Strategies to Help Them

‘pupil'.

Introduction

The following six students (pupils) represent the many individuals sitting in our classrooms worldwide with a diagnosed or undiagnosed learning difficulty. Although their names have been changed, the students' profiles are authentic. If you met them at school, or even in passing, these students would simply present as the articulate, delightful, intelligent individuals they are, with their silent learning difficulties nowhere in sight.

Kate was diagnosed with leukaemia when she was seven weeks old. She is now in Grade 9 and, fortunately, is healthy and happy. Kate is creative, lives in the moment and loves to swim. A talented reader and speller, she experiences challenges with her learning, in particular her memory, language and comprehension skills. Kate often needs more time to process information. Maths is her most difficult subject. She attends a mainstream high school and receives significant assistance and modification via the learning support program offered at her school.

Leon is eight years old and in Grade 2. He is clever and has a vast general knowledge, with particular talents in building creative designs and in completing visually orientated tasks. Leon's vocabulary, oral language and comprehension skills are strong, both in his native Chinese and his second language of English. He asks interesting and intelligent questions, yet Leon is unable to read or write in

any language.

Anthony is in Grade 1. He, too, is intelligent, enjoys maths, is a good problem solver and is perceptive beyond his years. Anthony's sense of humour is impressive and he has a sensitive heart. Help in concentrating, sitting still and being less impulsive are his greatest areas of need. These difficulties have caused Anthony to experience many challenges at school, especially with his peers and unsympathetic teachers. Sometimes, when he's angry or over-stimulated, Anthony hits other children, but then he feels remorseful and sad. He also forgets to bring things, such as his diary and homework, to school and is sometimes unable to remember what he has already learned.

Chris is athletic — a football and cricket champion. He is intelligent, a keen drummer and incredibly kind-hearted. He offers perceptions and insights about life and people beyond his years. Chris is sixteen years old and in Grade 10. He is a determined and hard-working student. He is talented at making things and his comprehension levels are impressive. Chris has had a long-standing history of learning challenges at school. He has always found reading and spelling hard and requires extra time to do things due to his slow processing speed. Chris is stronger at maths and simply requires fewer questions in a task or more time to get his work done. He can tell you which of his teachers ‘get' his learning challenges and performs best in the classes of those who cater for his needs, regardless of the subject. Chris received an end of school year English award in both Grade 7 and 8 for his achievements and effort.

Hannah is currently in Grade 3 and will be moving to Grade 4 shortly. A talented reader, artist and dancer, Hannah wants to perform on stage when she gets older. Her comprehension skills are great, as is her ability to write and spell. Hannah finds maths a significant challenge; learning and remembering her times tables is the bane of her life. Understanding division and telling the time are also extremely hard for her. She feels terribly anxious about these difficulties, especially on Wednesdays and Fridays because these are the days her teacher gives the class a mental maths test. It's always too hard for Hannah. She even forgets how to do the things she knows.

Mark is twelve years old and in Grade 6. He will start high school next year. Another talented athlete, Mark also excels at anything to do with the computer. He is a member of the school choir and is often given the extra responsibility of setting-up for school assemblies and special events. Although Mark is an intelligent student, he can barely read, spelling is a real challenge and handwriting text is almost impossible. He often produces his work on the computer and is creative and talented in the way he does this. After seven years at school, Mark has the reputation of the boy who misbehaves and makes inappropriate choices in class. He does have some behaviour challenges but is often blamed by his peers for things that happen when he's not even present at the time of the incident. Connecting socially has, therefore, been a long-standing issue for Mark. This makes him feel isolated and lonely.

What do these students have in common? They are kind, perceptive, sensitive, creative and dedicated students with their own individual strengths. Yet all six students also experience some kind of diagnosed or undiagnosed learning difficulty (LD) — although I prefer to call them learning differences.

These students also have significant challenges with their self-esteem and confidence that often ripples through varying parts of their life.

A number of them don't like school and find connecting with their peers difficult.

All six students:

love to learn and succeed

are predominantly visual and hands-on learners

are all ‘failing' at school (I would argue the system is failing them)

find homework a nightmare, for them and their families

have parents who commit much time, energy and emotion to supporting them.

The commitment from these families, on behalf of their children, often involves an endless amount of effort and energy battling various elements of the school system, and teachers who don't understand their children's LD and how best to help them. This cycle often creates havoc and stress for families both at school and at home.

In any education system in which I have worked, both domestically and internationally, LDs aren't recognised as a funded diagnosis. This means the school is not generally given any additional money to support the students' learning needs and they are not eligible for an education assistant to provide extra help in the classroom. Diagnoses that do receive special funding often include autism, vision and hearing impairment, physical disabilities, a severe language disorder, intellectual disability or other various medical conditions. These categories and the associated funding arrangements vary from country to country, and across differing school systems within countries.

Sometimes an individual's LD is recognised internally by the school administration and teachers, resulting in some extra help and support being offered. More often than not, the student's learning challenge isn't even recognised, diagnosed or ‘seen' for what it is. In many cases, the students are blamed by some of their educators for their learning challenges, while sometimes parents find it exceptionally hard to accept the difficulties that their child endures. Depending on the country in which you live, it's said that between 10 and 20 per cent of the population experiences some kind of learning challenge. I dread to think of the number of students sitting in classrooms around the world, learning differently, not achieving their individual potential and feeling that it's entirely their fault. The long-term impact of this, and the toll it has on their sense of self-worth and esteem, is immeasurable.

As an educator with a passion for working with students experiencing LD, I certainly don't claim to have all the answers but I can share insights from my work with students, teachers, classroom assistants and families. The strategies I have used teaching in the classroom and as a learning support coordinator, consultant and lecturer, seem to make a positive difference to the lives, confidence and academic progress of students with additional learning needs. Throughout my career, I have noticed a pattern in students' responses to the strategies and teaching methods I implement. This success is not dependent on the students' ages, the languages they speak or where they come from.

It is universal — the techniques just work!

This book is designed to share these effective teaching and learning strategies.

Teachers, education assistants and parents are often time poor: the purpose of this book is to provide an understanding of various learning differences and most importantly what to do about them. The strategies and practical elements are not meant to be an additional chore in your already overcrowded day, merely good practice that can be incorporated into teaching and learning experiences. In essence, the techniques are simply effective teaching principles that can be used with both primary and high school students. Parents may also find some of the strategies can be implemented at home; after all you are your child's first teacher and you will remain their dominant advocate throughout their years of schooling.

May the ideas in this book support you in being the best teacher, education assistant or parent that you can be. Most of all, may they benefit the many students who need a different yet relatively simple change in the approach their educators take to teaching and learning, so as to ensure they are working towards and achieve their individual potential.

Here's to the kids who are different!

Part 1

'If a child can't learn the way we teach, maybe we should teach the way they learn.'

Ignacio Estrada

Chapter 1: Learning Difficulties Defined

So what exactly does it mean to have a learning difficulty (LD)¹? First of all, it's important to note that there are many students sitting in our classrooms with an undiagnosed LD. I'm not talking about students who are young for their grade, or who are not ready to learn particular skills and concepts, nor am I referring to individuals who are being taught in their second or third language. I'm talking about students with a legitimate LD, which can be assessed by an educational psychologist or appropriate professional, and diagnosed accordingly. Therefore, the definitions below may be relevant to the students in your care with a diagnosed learning challenge as well as those individuals whose LD has not been formally assessed or recognised.

Specific Learning Difficulty (SpLD)

A learning difficulty across a variety of subjects and skills, is called a specific learning difficulty and is often referred to as a SpLD or LD. In his book, Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties (2012, Oxford), Mark Selikowitz defines an LD as being ‘an unexpected and unexplained condition occurring in a child of average or above-average intelligence, characterised by a significant delay in one or more areas of learning'.

Average intelligence is measured as an IQ (intelligence quotient) of between 85 and 115. Note that students with LD have average or above-average intelligence. This means that their difficulty has nothing to do with their intellect.

Some students will be given the diagnosis of specific learning difficulty (SpLD), while other students may receive a more specific diagnosis for their LD. The four most common LDs are:

Dyslexia — a difficulty with words, particularly in reading and spelling, due to a problem with phonemic awareness.

Dysgraphia — a difficulty that makes handwriting challenging, resulting in it sometimes being unreadable. This does not mean the student is unable to create or produce a text or story. It's usually only the physical mechanics and skills required to write the text which are the problem. If a student has a language-based challenge or other related conditions, the content and organisation of what the student is writing may also be an issue.

Dyscalculia — a difficulty performing or understanding maths-related concepts and activities. Completing written maths word problems and mental arithmetic are challenging for a student with dyscalculia.

Dyspraxia (developmental coordination disorder) — verbal dyspraxia refers to a speech disorder that makes it difficult for a person to coordinate their lips and tongue when speaking. Motor dyspraxia is a common cause of clumsiness and makes it difficult for an individual to coordinate movements. Both disorders are due to messages being interrupted when they are sent from the brain to the relevant body part.

Dyslexia is the most commonly recognised LD, yet it's often misunderstood. There are many reasons why students may find reading a challenge, yet not all of these students experience dyslexia. Another common misconception is that having dyslexia means that the letters and words are reversed and jump all over the page. Many students who are diagnosed with dyslexia have challenges with reversals but this is related to additional visual processing challenges. Dyslexia's root cause is a breakdown and challenge with phonemic awareness.

Phonemic awareness is the ability to manipulate sounds. It's all about hearing sounds; you don't even need to be able to read to have good phonemic awareness skills. Students at preschool and kindergarten are taught these skills through games, rhymes and songs. Phonemic awareness involves skills like blending and segmenting sounds, identifying syllables in words and creating rhyme. It is not to be confused with phonics, which is the sound a letter makes, as in ‘a' is for apple.

In summary, a student diagnosed with LD may be identified as having a specific learning difficulty (SpLD) or may be given a diagnosis of one of the four most common, like dyslexia or dyscalculia. My understanding is that if the student's LD is across numerous learning areas it's likely to be diagnosed as a SpLD, while if it relates directly to one area of learning, such as maths, dyscalculia may be diagnosed. Of course, the jargon is going to change from system to system, state to state, and country to country, but the underlying principles will be the same. Similarly, some organisations and professionals use the term ‘learning disability' instead of ‘learning difficulty', but it generally means the same thing.

For example, Chris, the Grade 10 student I mentioned in the Introduction, was diagnosed as having a SpLD. The assessments he undertook were facilitated by an educational psychologist and highlighted that he had a processing speed ranked in the ninth percentile. This means that 91 per cent of students his age process information faster than he does. Chris's slow processing speed affected all curriculum areas but in particular reading, spelling, written work and some areas of maths. Therefore, a diagnosis of SpLD was made.

In contrast, Leon was diagnosed with dyslexia as his assessment highlighted reading and spelling as his areas of challenge. He also had some challenges in maths but Leon's assessment results were not indicative of an LD in numeracy (dyscalculia).

Both Chris and Leon were found to have average or above-average intelligence.

When thinking about students like Chris and Leon, I imagine the brain of a student with LD is intact, intelligence flowing throughout all sections. I visualise the literacy part of the student's brain and see it as ‘murky'. If they're experiencing a numeracy based LD, then I imagine the maths part of the brain is ‘murky' instead. Of course, this is not what it looks like scientifically or neurologically but I have found that this visualisation provides clarity for those trying to understand the impact and meaning of an LD.

As an educator, parent and community member, it's crucial to recognise that LDs are often invisible and silent. Many of the students I have worked with present as articulate, intelligent and orally competent. Unless you see them try to spell, write, read or maybe do some maths work, you wouldn't know they had a learning challenge. This can cause havoc for students.

Imagine the frustration of being an intelligent individual with various strengths, yet being unable to read well, if at all, or not knowing how to do Grade 4 maths when you're in Grade 7!

The invisibility of the LD, particularly if it's not diagnosed or recognised, makes it even harder for students. Often their teachers don't understand the discrepancies between the student's strengths and their areas of need and label them as lazy, defiant or dumb. Not surprisingly, students can sense this in their teachers and know when they are directly or indirectly being blamed for their LD!

Other Learning Challenges Defined

As well as SpLD and the four main types of LDs, I have encountered other learning conditions/diagnoses for which the strategies outlined in Chapter 6 are effective. Although they are not called LD, the conditions do influence a student's learning style and can bring an additional set of challenges. These conditions are mainly referred to as ‘disorders' and include:

severe language disorder (SLD)

auditory processing disorder (APD)

short-term auditory memory (STAM)

visual processing disorder (VPD)

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD or ADD)

intellectual disability (ID)

The characteristics and definitions of these conditions are outlined below.

Severe Language Disorder (SLD)

Students with SLD have a communication difficulty that impairs their ability to share or understand language. They may have difficulty with expressive and/or receptive language.

Receptive language is our ability to receive and process information efficiently and accurately. (I remember this as receptive and receive both beginning with rec.)

Expressive language is our ability to process and share information efficiently and accurately.

Students with SLD may have difficulty with the following:

reading

spelling

vocabulary

oral expression

comprehension, especially inferred meaning

maths

following directions/instructions and asking questions

concentration

social interaction.

A diagnosis of SLD is made by a speech therapist and/or an educational psychologist.

I have worked with students who have difficulty both understanding (receptive) and sharing (expressive) information. I have also taught students who have strong receptive language skills but who find it incredibly difficult to express what they know verbally. Imagine the frustration of having lots to share but being unable to do so in easy or traditional ways!

Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)

Students with APD have difficulty processing auditory information. They hear what is said, but find it hard to process the message and information accurately. For example, Kate, from the Introduction, has been diagnosed as having APD and recently she was asked by her teacher to write a creative story about a day when she was invisible. Kate processed the ‘day' part and wrote a page-long story about a day in her life. She knows what invisible means but, due to her APD, hadn't processed the word as part of the task requirement. Ironically, the teacher chose to focus on the fact she had not written about the expected topic, rather than celebrating that Kate had written a whole page, which was a wonderful accomplishment for her! I suspect the teacher hadn't written the instructions on the board. This visual cue, taking into account that Kate is a good reader, would have given her a better chance of completing the task as required.

Due to the distractions of a busy classroom, students with APD may find it challenging to understand information presented verbally, to follow oral instructions and to concentrate. APD can also have an impact on a student's learning progress, in particular spelling, reading and the language of maths.

A child with APD has normal hearing and a diagnosis of APD is given by an audiologist. Sometimes the condition is referred to as a central auditory processing disorder (CAPD).

Short-Term Auditory Memory (STAM)

A student with STAM has difficulty remembering the information they hear and this condition is also diagnosed by an audiologist. Children with STAM have normal hearing, can process auditory information but forget what they have heard. For example, these are students who listen when the teacher gives numerous auditory instructions but when it comes time to start their work forget what to do or what the first instruction was.

Visual Processing Disorder (VPD)

Students with VPD or associated challenges experience difficulty in processing visual information. They may reverse letters and numbers or lose their place while reading. VPD can have an impact on a student's learning in both literacy and numeracy.

A student with VPD has normal vision and a diagnosis is made by a behavioural ophthalmologist.

It's important to note that until about seven or eight years of age, letter and number reversals are ‘normal', particularly when writing. Some of the most common are b/d and 6/9. I will add, though, that in my experience, when a young student is learning to read and is consistently saying ‘was' for ‘saw', ‘no' for ‘on', ‘of' for ‘for', and reading ‘b' for ‘d', ‘w' for ‘m', and ‘i' for ‘j' — it usually indicates that there is possibly something other than age-appropriate reversals going on. I've also noticed this pattern with students who have a diagnosed and undiagnosed LD. It is sometimes evident in their writing, too.

I'm fascinated by the fact that it's the same list of words and letters students tend to mix, regardless of their age or the country they live in. For me, it's become a tell-tale sign that a formal assessment for an underlying LD and/or visual processing issue needs to be done.

Another indicator of possible reading and visual processing challenges is when students can read words in isolation, for example, from a list of high-frequency words but when they read those same words in a text or book they read them incorrectly or replace/reverse them like ‘was' instead of ‘saw'.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD or ADD)

ADHD is a disorder that affects a person's ability to concentrate. Symptoms include: distractibility, poor organisational skills, impulsivity, sensitivity to over stimulation, and memory difficulties. In my experience, students with ADHD often have challenges with literacy learning, too. It's important to note that autism and ADHD are from the same family of needs — an individual can have them together or exclusive of one another.

In my mind, ADHD refers to the hyperactive and more overt form of the condition, while ADD is quieter, with more subtle signs of inattention.

Intellectual Disability (ID)

A student with an intellectual disability exhibits intellectual function (IQ) below 70 and deficits in adaptive behaviour, i.e. coping and independent living skills. An average IQ falls between 85 and 115. The severity of ID will depend on the results of IQ testing. Scores equate to a mild, moderate and severe range of intellectual impairment.

Any ongoing reference in this book to a student with ID, refers to individuals attending a mainstream school. Many of the strategies outlined will support their learning, but the content/skill may need to be modified to match their ability level and they may need other specific strategies to help them, especially if they have a dual diagnosis of ID with autism or Down's syndrome.

* * *

The conditions outlined are, again, primarily ‘invisible' but the implications for teachers, parents and students are huge. Many of these learning differences do not receive additional financial funding from the government or within various education systems. From the list, only a severe language disorder and intellectual disability are conditions currently funded in the Australian school system.

From my understanding and experience, many of these needs and the effective strategies to teach students who have them, are not adequately addressed in university teacher training courses. Therefore, along with funding concerns, we also have educators beginning their careers with little understanding of the challenges and the impact these conditions have in the classroom both for students and teachers.

Simply being aware that there will always be a number of students in your class experiencing learning challenges of some kind is an excellent place for educators to start.

¹ The abbreviation LD can be read throughout this book as a learning difficulty and/or learning difficulties. Some students will have more than one recognised learning challenge. Return

Chapter 2: Diagnosing Learning Difficulties

I am frequently asked why a diagnosis of LD is so important for students when it may lead to them being ‘labelled’. Labelling seems to evoke negative implications for people. I certainly don’t believe in labelling or using a diagnosis to pigeon-hole a student. After all, each individual experiencing LD will have their own set of strengths and needs. It’s also highly likely they will also share certain characteristics associated with having an LD. The LD is not who they are, it’s simply a part of their make-up.

I often hear people say, ‘That dyslexic child’ or, ‘That autistic student’, which implies that students are their dyslexia or autism. I prefer to say, ‘The child who has dyslexia’ or, ‘The student experiencing autism’. It’s less personal and reduces the likelihood of negative labelling. It’s just like having diabetes or asthma; these medical conditions are something you have, not something you are!

Labelling in my opinion is not healthy but I believe a diagnosis, if approached properly, can be of great help.

In all my years of educating, the most significant issue I have helped students experiencing LD and other learning challenges with is their self-esteem, confidence and sense of self-worth. Teaching them to read, write, spell and/or to do functional maths is important, but in my experience, it’s secondary to guiding them to restore their self-belief.

Restoring and maintaining a student’s self-confidence as a person and a learner tends to have a positive impact on all aspects of the progress they make academically.

Then, of course, it goes without saying that as their reading, writing, maths, spelling or focus starts to improve, their self-esteem is positively affected, too! This has shown to be true in my private practice as a specialist tutor, as well as in all of my school and system-based roles.

I have also taught many adults who report horrific school experiences that knocked their confidence, causing repercussions that have remained with them well into their adult years.

Often, if an LD isn’t diagnosed, possibly due to its invisibility combined with other factors, students find themselves blamed or misunderstood for their learning challenges or associated behaviours. Educators, and sometimes parents too, don’t