Roman Stoicism: Words to Live (and Die) By

Section 1 - Preface

This book is an assemblage of some of the most insightful and enlightening ideas which have been extracted from the writings of four of the most influential figures in the philosophy of Stoicism: Seneca, Musonius Rufus, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. It is hoped that through this amalgamation of Stoic thought the reader will come away with a clear and concise understanding of this most noble of philosophies.

The intended audience of the book is the student of classical moral philosophy, in which case the book may be thought of a primer on Stoic ethics, or indeed anyone who is desirous of exploring a new outlook on the age-old issues concerning life and death.

Section 2 - Notes on the Text

With regard to quotations, content found within square brackets [] is mine; content found within parentheses () is the author’s.

Sections in bold type or that are underlined are intended by me to highlight critical points.

Section 3 - Introduction

Errare humanum est, sed perseverare diabolicum

(To err is human, but to persist in the error is diabolical)

~ Seneca

It is commonly acknowledged that the roots of Ancient Greek philosophy can be traced back to the ideas of Thales of Miletus and the Seven Sages of Greece in the sixth century BC. At that time, one of the foremost goals of philosophers was to discover the fundamental substance which underlies all things (and for Thales this substance was water). Beginning with Thales, a line of succession was formed which would come to comprise nearly the whole of Ancient Greek philosophy. It proceeded first to Anaximander, then to Anaximenes and Pythagoras, then to Anaxagoras and Diogenes, then to Archelaus, and finally to Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. At each step in the progression each successor refined and built upon the ideas of those who came before him until at last a culmination was reached in the Socratic and introspective approach to the acquisition of knowledge, which can be recognized most prominently in the writings of Plato and Aristotle.

Beginning with the death of Socrates in 399 BC, however, Greek philosophy began a steady shift away from this direct line of succession and towards a more disparate paradigm which consisted in multiple and often competing schools of thought. Whether this shift was the result of the great political and cultural upheavals which were brought about in part by the conquests of Alexander the Great, or by the steady decline of their own civilization, the Greeks no longer regarded philosophy as a body of beliefs which needed to be passed along sequentially and for all intents and purposes generationally, but rather one in which diverse and competing opinions could serve as the foundations for entirely new philosophical doctrines.

This shift came about most dramatically during what is known as the Hellenistic Period, which lasted from 323 BC to 146 BC, or to put it in a historical context, the nearly two-hundred years which bridge the gap between the fall of the Classic Greek Period and the dawn of the Roman Empire. The Hellenistic Period saw the emergence of multiple schools of thought, including Sophism, Skepticism, Cynicism, Pythagoreanism, and Epicureanism, to name just a few. In this book, however, we will only be concerned with what has arguably been the most enduring and influential of all the Hellenistic philosophies, Stoicism, and more specifically, the writings by which Stoicism is defined.

By all accounts, Stoicism is a self-contained philosophy. It has its own doctrines on physics, epistemology, and logic, as well as other philosophic disciplines which, among other things, encompass politics and society in general. Without a doubt, however, it is in the field of ethics where we find Stoicism to be most recognized and revered.

The philosophy of Stoicism began in the third century BC with the preachings of Zeno of Citium (not to be confused with Zeno of Elea (490-430 BC) who was a significant influence to both Plato and Aristotle). Zeno of Citium (334-262 BC), who according to the accounts of Diogenes Laërtius, was a merchant hailing from the city of Citium (now Larnaca, Cyprus) who became interested in philosophy only after being shipwrecked near Athens and subsequently discovering the written accounts of Socrates by way of an Athenian book merchant. It is said that Zeno began his preachings from the colonnade at the Agora of Athens in 301 BC. This colonnade was known as the Stoa Poikile (the Painted Porch), and thus we arrive at the name Stoicism. Zeno divided his philosophy into three principal branches: logic, of which he included rhetoric, grammar, and the various aspects of epistemology; physics, of which he included both the natural and divine characteristics of the universe; and ethics, which, at its core, maintained that happiness could only be achieved by living in accordance with nature. As we shall see, this belief would come to be regarded as the essential tenet of Stoicism.

Stoicism itself may be divided into three periods: the Early, the Middle, and the Late. While the first two focus primarily on physics and logic, it is in the Late Period which is characterized by the writings of such thinkers as Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius, where we find the traditional stoic ideas and axioms which are just as inspirational today as they were when they were first written. It is through the writings of such men that we find what many have discovered throughout the ages: wise and practical words to live and die by.

In the early days of Rome religious thought left much to be desired. Infused with foreign gods, many of which were borrowed from the Greeks, religion in Rome was often characterized by paid and bargained- for sacrifices as well as favors that came at a price. Furthermore, Roman religion often proved to be more pomp and circumstance than real substance and had little if anything to say about morality and the proper ways of living. As a result, individuals of a more devout character were forced to turn to philosophy for guidance in life’s more lofty matters: a guidance which was found to be altogether wanting in Rome’s corrupt religion of indulgences.

During this time, two of the most predominant philosophies in Rome were Stoicism and Epicureanism, which was another of the aforementioned schools of Hellenistic thought. While it is true that both philosophies sought the same objective, namely, man’s happiness, their respective paths to that objective were radically different. Established by the Greek philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BC), the Epicurean doctrine held that man’s happiness could only be achieved through physical pleasures; to the contrary, the Stoics maintained that the road to happiness was paved with human virtue and living one’s life in accordance with nature. Thus in the former we see that freedom from discomfort and an unbridled license are the values to be desired, while in the latter it is repressed emotion and an unwavering commitment to tolerance and endurance. For the Stoics, living in conformity to nature did not mean yielding to any and every natural impulse, but rather living according to a nature that is properly understood; and it was Zeno’s ideas concerning logic and physics that laid the foundation for such an understanding.

As will be made abundantly clear throughout this book, the central creed that permeates all Stoic thought is to live one’s life in accordance with nature. But what does this actually mean? Certainly we are all part of nature, and furthermore, everything in our lives is part of nature as well. Given this, how is it even conceivable to live otherwise than in conformity to nature? According to the Stoics the answer is simple; adhering to it, however, is quite another matter.

For the Stoics, to live one’s life according to nature means to accept nature as it exists, and that to struggle against nature is the source of all human sorrow. Accordingly, the first thing we need to understand is that nature is beyond the control of man; therefore, we should learn to accept it without complaint. Indeed, to complain about nature is not only useless, but contemptible. The next thing we need to consider is that in our lives there are some things that are within our power to control, some things that are beyond our power to control, and still other things that are altogether indifferent to us. As such, we need only trouble ourselves with those things that are within our power to control; all other things we must leave to nature and God. Moreover, since our notions of good and evil presuppose actions which are made by moral judgments, only those things that are within our power to control can truly be said to be good or evil; hence only those things that fall within our control have the power to harm us, and then only if we let them. So while the things that are outside of our control may indeed injure us, they can neither be evil nor can they ever be said to wrong us – they simple behave as nature intends. Beyond this, we need to understand that of the things that are truly within our power to control, all of them lie within ourselves as human beings and that they can never be taken from us, regardless of the circumstances we find ourselves in. All things that are external to us lie beyond our control and should therefore be regarded as the temporary gifts of fortune, and furthermore, gifts that will sooner or later be taken from us. Consequently, it is foolish to place one’s happiness in external things, whatever they may be. This means that true happiness lies not within anything external, but entirely within our very selves. The last point we need to consider is that happiness comes from virtuous behavior, and that virtuous behavior is within our power to control and is itself its own reward.

To be happy, then, we must learn to control the things we can, and to accept the things we cannot. Since misfortune, sickness, and death are not within our power to control we must learn to accept them, but as our feelings towards these things are within our power to control we must face them with courage, grace, and dignity. Furthermore, since wealth, all manner of physical pleasure, and even our very lives and the lives of our loved ones are fleeting, it is folly to invest our happiness in them, for all of them are beyond our control and will be taken from us at some time or another. The best way to regard external things, therefore, is to be thankful for the time we have with them and to graciously give them up when the time arrives, which in this life will come all too soon.

While it is true that Zeno and his immediate successors, namely, Cleanthes and Chrysippus, laid the groundwork that would become the Stoic tradition, there is no doubt that its most inspirational aspects came centuries later through the writings of three men: Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. Accordingly, it is the intention of this book to present a first-hand look into what Stoicism really is, not through tedious explanations or third person accounts, but rather by examining the actual words of these men. In addition, we include the words of Gaius Musonius Rufus, the teacher of Epictetus, who, although he left us with no completed works, is nonetheless considered to be on par with the others when it comes to inspirational thought. And with that, we will now begin our examination of the words of the Roman Stoics, which to many have become words to live and die by.

Section 4 - Seneca (The Younger)

(c. 3 BC – 65 AD)

Lucius Annaeus Seneca was born into a wealthy family in what is now Cordoba, Spain in or around the year 3 BC. Both his father, Seneca the Elder, and his older brother, Junius Annaeus Gallio, were successful rhetoricians, writers, and statesmen, and it was their intention that the young Seneca should follow in these pursuits as well. Hence, at an early age Seneca, accompanied by his aunt, was sent to Rome where he was educated in a form of philosophy which consisted in a mixture of both Stoic and Neo-Pythagoreanistic doctrines. But as Seneca was to be plagued with health problems throughout his life, an illness interrupted his studies, and while still a young man he travelled to Egypt (again accompanied by his aunt) to undergo a prolonged convalescence. When he returned to Rome in 31 AD, he picked up where he left off and embarked upon what would become a successful career in both politics and law. Furthermore, it was during this time that he came to be widely regarded as an important writer, amassing not only a sizable collection of essays, but of tragedies as well.

In time, however, Seneca fell out of favor with the then Emperor Caligula, who had accused him of committing adultery with his sister, Princess Julia Livilla. Consequently, in 41 AD Emperor Claudius, Caligula’s successor, ordered Seneca to be sent to Corsica. (Due to Seneca’s protracted poor health, it wasn’t considered worthwhile to have him executed.) During his time in exile Seneca devoted almost all of his time to writing and the study of philosophy. Then in 49 AD, at the urging of Claudius’ wife, Agrippina, Seneca was recalled to Rome where he was compelled to be the tutor her son, the twelve year old and future Emperor, Nero. A year later, Seneca married Pompeia Paulina, a well-connected woman of considerable influence. It was shortly after Nero’s ascendancy to the throne in 54 AD that Seneca assumed the role of chief minister to the Emperor.

However, as is common among those so near to the seat of power, Seneca soon found himself at odds with various political enemies, so much so, in fact, that in 62 AD he was forced to retire from public life altogether. This, unfortunately, did not end his political troubles, for in 65 AD Seneca became embroiled in a plot to murder Nero. This failed plot, known as the Pisonian Conspiracy, marked the beginning of Nero’s fall from power, and would eventually lead to his own suicide. Nonetheless, and despite history’s having no account of Seneca’s involvement in the plot, Seneca along with forty others where either exiled or executed, mostly by way of forced suicide. For his own part, Seneca fell into the latter group, and in traditional Roman fashion, he committed suicide by lying in a hot bath and opening the veins of his arms and legs. Pompeian Paulina tried to accompany her husband in death by slashing her own wrists, but when Nero heard the news of her attempt, he ordered his soldiers to bandage her wounds and stop the bleeding, not so much in an effort to save her life, but rather out of spite toward the conspirators.

For two thousand years Seneca’s writings have been an inspiration to theologians and moral philosophers alike. With regard to Christianity, Seneca’s works were studied and revered by such early thinkers as St. Augustine, Jerome, and Boethius. There is even evidence that indicates that Seneca was acquainted with Paul the Apostle. (Seneca’s brother Gallio is written about in the New Testament book, the Acts of the Apostles.) As for moral philosophy, Seneca’s influence can be seen in the works of Dante, Chaucer, Calvin, Montaigne, and Rousseau. And whether he was aware of it or not, Immanuel Kant’s famous Categorical Imperative can be shown (and later will be shown) to have its roots in the ethical teachings of Seneca.

We will now begin our examination of some of the important ideas and quotes that Seneca presents in four of his most famous works: On the Shortness of Life, On Anger, On the Happy Life, and On Peace of Mind.

Part 1 - On the Shortness of Life (Seneca)

(Written around 49 AD)

The following is based on the translation by John W. Basore, 1932.

From Chapter 1

The majority of mortals, Paulinus, complain bitterly of the spitefulness of Nature, because we are born of a brief span of life, because even this span that has been granted to us rushes by so speedily and so swiftly that all save a very few find life at an end just when they are getting ready to live. Nor is it the common herd and the unthinking crowd that bemoans what is, as men deem it, a universal ill; the same feeling has called forth complaint also from men who were famous. It was this that made the greatest of physicians [Hippocrates] exclaim that ‘life is short, art is long;’ it was this that led Aristotle, while expostulating with Nature, to enter an indictment most unbecoming to a wise man – that, in point of age, she has shown such favor to animals that they drag out five or ten lifetimes, but that a much shorter limit is fixed for man, though he is born for so many and such great achievements.

It is not that we live a short space of time, but that we waste much of it.

Life is long enough, and it has been given in sufficiently generous measure to allow the accomplishment of the greatest things if the whole of it is well invested. But when it is squandered in luxury and carelessness, when it is devoted to no good end, forced at last by the ultimate necessity we perceive that it has passed away before we were aware that it was passing.

So it is – the life we receive is not short, but we make it so, nor do we have any lack of it, but are wasteful of it.

Life is amply long for him who orders it properly.

From Chapter 2

Why do we complain of Nature? She has shown herself kindly; life, if you know how to use it, is long.

I cannot doubt the truth of that utterance which the greatest of poets delivered with all the seeming of an oracle: ‘The part of life we really live is small.’ For all the rest of existence is not life, but merely time.

From Chapter 3

Men do not suffer anyone to seize their estates, and they rush to stones and arms if there is even the slightest dispute about the limit of their lands, yet they allow others to trespass upon their life – nay, they themselves even lead in those who will eventually possess it. No one is to be found who is willingly to distribute his money, yet among how many does each one of us distribute his life! In guarding their fortune men are often closefisted, yet, when it comes to the matter of wasting time, in the case of the one thing in which it is right to be miserly, they show themselves most prodigal.

And so I should like to lay hold upon someone from the company of older men and say, I see that you have reached the farthest limit of human life, you are pressing hard upon your hundredth year, or are even beyond it; come now, recall your life and make a reckoning. Consider how much of your time was taken up with a moneylender, how much with a mistress, how much with a patron, how much with a client, how much in wrangling with your wife, how much in punishing your slaves, how much in rushing about the city on social duties. Add the diseases which we have caused by our own acts, add, too, the time that has lain idle and unused; you will see that you have fewer years to your credit than you count. Look back in memory and consider when you ever had a fixed plan, how few days have passed as you had intended, when you were ever at your own disposal, when your face ever wore its natural expression, when your mind was ever unperturbed, what work have you achieved in so long a life, how many have robbed you of life when you were not aware of what you were losing, how much was taken up in useless sorrow, in foolish joy, in greedy desire, in the allurements of society, how little of yourself was left to you; you will see that you are dying before your season!

What foolish forgetfulness of mortality to postpone wholesome plans to the fiftieth and sixtieth year, and to intend to begin life at a point to which few have attained!

From Chapter 4

You will see that the most powerful and highly placed men let drop remarks in which they long for leisure, acclaim it, and prefer it to all their blessings. They desire at times, if it could be with safety, to descend from their high pinnacle; for though nothing from without should assail or shatter, Fortune of its very self comes crashing down.

From Chapter 7

But among the worst I count also those who have time for nothing but wine and lust; for none have more shameful engrossments. The others, even if they are possessed by the empty dream of glory, nevertheless go astray in a more seemly manner; though you could cite to me the men who are avaricious, the men who are wrathful, whether busied with unjust hatreds of with unjust wars, these all sin in more manly fashion. But those who are plunged into the pleasures of the belly and into lust bear a stain that is dishonorable.

No one pursuit can be successfully followed by a man who is busied with many things.

There is nothing the busy man is less busied with than living: there is nothing that is harder to learn.

It takes the whole of life to learn how to live, and – what will perhaps make you wonder more – it takes the whole of life to learn how to die.

Believe me, it takes a great man and one who has risen far above human weaknesses not to allow any of his time to be filched from him, and it follows that the life of such a man is very long because he has devoted wholly to himself whatever time he has had. None of it lay neglected and idle; none of it was under the control of another, for, guarding it most drudgingly, he found nothing that was worthy to be taken in exchange for his time. And so that man had time enough, but those who have been robbed of much of their life by the public, have necessarily had too little of it.

And there is no reason for you to suppose that these people are not sometimes aware of their loss. Indeed, you will hear many of those who are burdened by great prosperity cry out at times in the midst of their throngs of clients, or their pleadings in court, or their other glorious miseries: ‘I have no chance to live.’ Of course you have no chance! All those who summon you to themselves, turn you away from your own self.

Everyone hurries his life on and suffers from a yearning for the future and a weariness of the present. But he who bestows all of his time on his own needs, who plans out every day as if it were his last, neither longs for nor fears the morrow. For what new pleasure is there that any hour can now bring? They are all known, all have been enjoyed to the full. Mistress Fortune may deal out the rest as she likes; his life has already found safety.

And so there is no reason for you to think that any man has lived long because he has grey hairs or wrinkles; he has not lived long – he has existed long. For what if you should think that that man had had a long voyage who had been caught by a fierce storm as soon as he left harbor, and, swept hither and thither by a succession of winds that raged from different quarters, had been driven in a circle around the same course? Not much voyaging did he have, but much tossing about.

From Chapter 8

"Men trifle with the most precious thing [time], because it does not come beneath the sight of the eyes, and for this reason it is counted a very cheap thing – nay, of almost no value at all. Men set very great store by pensions and doles, and for these they hire out their labor or service or effort.