International Law. A Treatise. Volume II (of 2) War and Neutrality. Second Edition

CALCUTTA

INTERNATIONAL LAW

A TREATISE

VOL. II.

WAR AND NEUTRALITY

SECOND EDITION

BY

L. OPPENHEIM, M.A., LL.D.

WHEWELL PROFESSOR OF INTERNATIONAL LAW IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF JURISPRUDENCE AT MADRID

LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.

39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON

NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA

1912

All rights reserved

Transcriber's Note: Original spelling variations have not been standardized. Links have been provided to the first volume of this two-volume work, see International Law. A Treatise. Vol. I--Peace. Second Edition, by Lassa Oppenheim, M.A., LL.D., gutenberg ebooks 41046. Although we verify the correctness of these links at the time of posting, these links may not work, for various reasons, for various people, at various times.

PREFACE

TO THE SECOND EDITION

The course of events since 1906, when the second volume of this work first made its appearance, and the results of further research have necessitated, as in the case of the first volume, the thorough revision of the text, the rewriting of many portions, and the discussion of a number of new topics. The additions to this volume are even more numerous than those to the first, with the consequence that, in spite of the typographical devices explained in the preface to the second edition of the first volume, the text of this volume has been increased by one hundred pages. The increase is, in some measure, due to the fact that the thirteen Conventions of the Second Hague Peace Conference, and, further, the Declaration of London, are fully discussed and expounded. But the increase is also due to the fact that a number of other new topics have been discussed; I will only mention the questions whether enemy subjects have persona standi in judicio (§ 100a), and whether trading with enemy subjects is permitted (§ 101).

The system of the work, with but occasional slight alterations in arrangement and the headings of the sections, remains the same. In those cases, however, in which a portion had to be entirely rewritten—as, for instance, that on Enemy Character, that on Commencement of War, and that on Unneutral Service—the arrangement of the topics differs from that in the first edition, and the headings of the sections also differ. Apart from many new sections, a whole chapter treating of the proposed International Prize Court has been added at the end of the volume.

Since some of the Conventions produced by the Second Peace Conference, and, further, the Declaration of London, have not yet been ratified, the task of the writer of a comprehensive treatise on International Law is very difficult: he must certainly not treat the rules in these unratified documents as law, but, on the other hand, he must not ignore them. For this reason the right method seemed to be to give everywhere the law hitherto prevailing, and to give also the changes in the law which are proposed by these unratified documents. I venture to hope that this method will enable the reader to form a judgment of his own with regard to the merits of the Declaration of London. I have not concealed my conviction that the ratification of this Declaration would mark great progress in the development of International Law, since it offers a common agreement upon a number of subjects concerning which there has been hitherto much discord both in theory and practice. But I have endeavoured to put the matter impartially before the reader, and I have taken special care to draw attention to very numerous points which have not been settled by the Declaration of London.

In revising and rewriting this volume I have remained true to the principle of impartiality, neither taking the part of any one nation, nor denouncing any other. The discredit which International Law concerning War and Neutrality suffers in the minds of certain sections of the public is largely due to the fact that many writers have not in the past approached the subject with that impartial and truly international spirit which is indispensable for its proper treatment.

Many friends of the book have asked that the second edition might, in the Appendix, offer an English translation of the French texts concerned. I was prepared to accede to their request, but had to abstain from doing so on account of the fact that the addition of a translation would have made the volume too bulky for convenience; the new Conventions of the Second Hague Peace Conference, the Declaration of London together with the Report of the Drafting Committee of the Naval Conference of London, the Naval Prize Bill of 1911, and the Geneva Convention Act of 1911, all of which necessarily had to be added, having increased the Appendix very considerably.

It has been the aim of my assistants and myself to make the quotations in this and the preceding volume as correct as possible. However, considering that there are many thousands of citations, it would be a miracle if there were not numerous mistakes and misprints in them, in spite of the great care which has been bestowed upon the matter. I shall be most grateful, therefore, if readers will kindly draw my attention to any inaccuracy they may notice.

My thanks are once more due to reviewers and readers who have drawn my attention to mistakes and misprints in the first edition; and I am again indebted to Miss B. M. Rutter and Mr. C. F. Pond for their valuable assistance in reading the proofs and in drawing up the Table of Cases and the alphabetical Index.

L. OPPENHEIM.

Whewell House

,

Cambridge

,

June 1, 1912.

ABBREVIATIONS

OF TITLES OF BOOKS, ETC., QUOTED IN THE TEXT

The books referred to in the bibliography and notes are, as a rule, quoted with their full titles and the date of their publication. But certain books, periodicals, and Conventions which are very often referred to throughout this work are quoted in an abbreviated form, as follows:—

A.J. = The American Journal of International Law.

Annuaire = Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International.

Ariga = Ariga, La Guerre Russo-Japonaise (1908).

Barboux = Barboux, Jurisprudence Du Conseil Des Prises Pendant La Guerre De 1870-71 (1871).

Barclay, = Barclay, Problems of International Practice Problems and Diplomacy (1907).

Bernsten = Bernsten, Das Seekriegsrecht (1911).

Bluntschli = Bluntschli, Das moderne Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt, 3rd ed. (1878).

Boeck = Boeck, De La Propriété Privée Ennemie Sous Pavillon Ennemi (1882).

Boidin = Boidin, Les Lois De La Guerre et Les Deux Conférences De La Haye (1908).

Bonfils = Bonfils, Manuel De Droit International Public, 6th ed. by Fauchille (1912).

Bordwell = Bordwell, The Law of War between Belligerents (1908).

Bulmerincq = Bulmerincq, Das Völkerrecht (1887).

Calvo = Calvo, Le Droit International, etc., 5th ed., 6 vols. (1896).

Convention I. = Hague Convention for the pacific settlement of international disputes.

Convention II. = Hague Convention respecting the limitation of the employment of force for the recovery of contract debts.

Convention III. = Hague Convention relative to the commencement of hostilities.

Convention IV. = Hague Convention concerning the laws and customs of war on land.

Convention V. = Hague Convention respecting the rights and duties of neutral Powers and persons in war on land.

Convention VI. = Hague Convention relative to the status of enemy merchantmen at the outbreak of hostilities.

Convention VII. = Hague Convention relative to the conversion of merchantmen into men-of-war.

Convention VIII. = Hague Convention concerning the laying of automatic submarine contact mines.

Convention IX. = Hague Convention respecting bombardment by naval forces in time of war.

Convention X. = Hague Convention for the adaptation of the principles of the Geneva Convention to maritime war.

Convention XI. = Hague Convention concerning certain restrictions on the exercise of the right of capture in maritime war.

Convention XII. = Hague Convention concerning the establishment of an International Prize Court.

Convention XIII. = Hague Convention respecting the rights and duties of neutral Powers in maritime war.

Despagnet = Despagnet, Cours De Droit International Public, 4th ed. by de Boeck (1910).

Deuxième Conférence, = Deuxième Conférence Internationale De Actes La Paix, Actes et Documents, 3 vols. (1908-1909).

Dupuis = Dupuis, Le Droit De La Guerre Maritime D'après Les Doctrines Anglaises Contemporaines (1899).

Dupuis, Guerre = Dupuis, Le Droit De La Guerre Maritime D'après Les Conférences de la Haye et de Londres (1911).

Field = Field, Outlines of an International Code, 2 vols. (1872-1873).

Fiore = Fiore, Nouveau Droit International Public, deuxième édition, traduite de l'Italien et annotée par Antoine, 3 vols. (1885).

Fiore, Code = Fiore, Le Droit International Codifié, nouvelle édition, traduite de l'Italien par Antoine (1911).

Gareis = Gareis, Institutionen des Völkerrechts, 2nd ed. (1901).

Gessner = Gessner, Le Droit Des Neutres Sur Mer (1865).

Grotius = Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625).

Hague = Hague Regulations respecting the Laws Regulations and Customs of War on Land, adopted by the Hague Peace Conference of 1907.

Hall = Hall, A Treatise on International Law, 4th ed. (1895).

Halleck = Halleck, International Law, 3rd English ed. by Sir Sherston Baker, 2 vols. (1893).

Hartmann = Hartmann, Institutionen des praktischen Völkerrechts in Friedenszeiten (1874).

Hautefeuille = Hautefeuille, Des Droits Et Des Devoirs Des Nations Neutres En Temps De Guerre Maritime, 3 vols. 2nd ed. (1858).

Heffter = Heffter, Das Europäische Völkerrecht der Gegenwart, 8th ed. by Geffcken (1888).

Heilborn, Rechte = Heilborn, Rechte und Pflichten der Neutralen Staaten in Bezug auf die während des Krieges auf ihr Gebiet übertretenden Angehörigen einer Armee und das dorthin gebrachte Kriegsmaterial der Kriegführenden Parteien (1888).

Heilborn, System = Heilborn, Das System des Völkerrechts entwickelt aus den völkerrechtlichen Begriffen (1896).

Higgins = Higgins, The Hague Peace Conferences (1909).

Holland, Prize = Holland, A Manual of Naval Prize Law Law (1888).

Holland, Studies = Holland, Studies in International Law (1898).

Holland, Jurisprudence = Holland, The Elements of Jurisprudence, 6th ed. (1893).

Holland, War = Holland, The Laws of War on Land (1908).

Holtzendorff = Holtzendorff, Handbuch des Völkerrechts, 4 vols. (1885-1889).

Kleen = Kleen, Lois et Usages De La Neutralité, 2 vols. (1900).

Klüber = Klüber, Europäisches Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. by Morstadt (1851).

Kriegsbrauch = Kriegsbrauch im Landkriege (1902). (Heft 31 der kriegsgeschichtlichen Einzelschriften, herausgegeben vom Grossen Generalstabe, Kriegsgeschichtliche Abtheilung I.).

Land Warfare = Edmonds and Oppenheim, Land Warfare. An Exposition of the Laws and Usages of War on Land for the Guidance of Officers of His Majesty's Army (1912).

Lawrence = Lawrence, The Principles of International Law, 4th ed. (1910).

Lawrence, Essays = Lawrence, Essays on some Disputed Questions of Modern International Law (1884).

Lawrence, War = Lawrence, War and Neutrality in the Far East, 2nd ed. (1904).

Lémonon = Lémonon, La Seconde Conférence De La Paix (1908).

Liszt = Liszt, Das Völkerrecht, 6th ed. (1910).

Longuet = Longuet, Le Droit Actuel De La Guerre Terrestre (1901).

Lorimer = Lorimer, The Institutes of International Law, 2 vols. (1883-1884).

Maine = Maine, International Law, 2nd ed. (1894).

Manning = Manning, Commentaries on the Law of Nations, new ed. by Sheldon Amos (1875).

Martens = Martens, Völkerrecht, German translation of the Russian original, 2 vols. (1883).

Martens, G. F. = G. F. Martens, Précis Du Droit Des Gens Moderne De l'Europe, nouvelle éd. by Vergé, 2 vols. (1858).

Martens, R.      }

Martens, N.R.   }

Martens, N.S.   }

Martens, N.R.G. }

Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. }

Martens. N.R.G. 3rd Ser. } These are the abbreviated quotations of the different parts of Martens, Recueil de Traités (see p. 102 of vol. i.), which are in common use.

Martens, Causes = Martens, Causes Célèbres du Droit des Célèbres Gens, 5 vols., 2nd ed. (1858-1861).

Mérignhac = Mérignhac, Les Lois Et Coutumes De La Guerre Sur Terre (1903).

Meurer = Meurer, Die Haager Friedenskonferenz, 2 vols. (1905-1907).

Moore = Moore, A Digest of International Law, 8 vols., Washington (1906).

Moore, Arbitrations = Moore, History and Digest of the Arbitrations to which the United States have been a Party, 6 vols. (1898).

Nippold = Nippold, Die Zweite Haager Friedenskonferenz, 2 vols. (1908-1911).

Nys = Nys, Le Droit International, vol. i. (1904).

Ortolan = Ortolan, Règles Internationales et Diplomatie de la Mer, 2 vols., 3rd ed. (1856).

Perels = Perels, Das Internationale öffentliche Seerecht der Gegenwart, 2nd ed. (1903).

Phillimore = Phillimore, Commentaries upon International Law, 4 vols., 3rd ed. (1879-1888).

Piedelièvre = Piedelièvre, Précis De Droit International Public, 2 vols. (1894-1895).

Pillet = Pillet, Les Lois Actuelles De La Guerre (1901).

Pistoye et Duverdy = Pistoye et Duverdy, Traité Des Prises Maritimes, 2 vols. (1854-1859).

Pradier-Fodéré = Pradier-Fodéré, Traité De Droit International Public, 8 vols. (1885-1906).

Pufendorf = Pufendorf, De Jure Naturae et Gentium (1672).

R.G. = Revue Générale De Droit International Public.

R.I. = Revue De Droit International Et De Législation Comparée.

Rivier = Rivier, Principes Du Droit Des Gens, 2 vols. (1896).

Scott, Conferences = Scott, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, vol. i. (1909).

Spaight = Spaight, War Rights on Land (1911).

Takahashi = Takahashi, International Law applied to the Russo-Japanese War (1908).

Taylor = Taylor, A Treatise on International Public Law (1901).

Testa = Testa, Le Droit Public International Maritime, traduction du Portugais par Boutiron (1886).

Twiss = Twiss, The Law of Nations, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1884, 1875).

Ullmann = Ullmann, Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. (1908).

U.S. Naval War = The Laws and Usages of War at Sea, published Code on June 27, 1900, by the Navy Department, Washington, for the use of the U. S. Navy and for the information of all concerned.

Vattel = Vattel, Le Droit Des Gens, 4 books in 2 vols., nouvelle éd. (Neuchâtel, 1773).

Walker = Walker, A Manual of Public International Law (1895).

Walker, History = Walker, A History of the Law of Nations, vol. i. (1899).

Walker, Science = Walker, The Science of International Law (1893).

Wehberg, = Wehberg, Kommentar zu dem Haager Kommentar Abkommen betreffend die friedliche Erledigung internationaler Streitigkeiten (1911).

Westlake = Westlake, International Law, 2 vols. (1904-1907).

Westlake, = Westlake, Chapters on the Principles of Chapters International Law (1894).

Wharton = Wharton, A Digest of the International Law of the United States, 3 vols. (1886).

Wheaton = Wheaton, Elements of International Law, 8th American ed. by Dana (1866).

Zorn = Zorn, Das Kriegsrecht zu Lande in seiner neuesten Gestaltung (1906).

Z.V. = Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht.

CASES CITED

Acteon, the, § 194, p. 243 note 5; § 431, p. 547 note 2

Adonis, the, § 386, p. 472 note 7; § 390, p. 477 note 3

Africa, the, § 413, p. 531 note 1

Alabama, the, § 335, p. 406

Alaska Boundary Dispute (1903), § 14, p. 18

Alcinous v. Nygreu, § 101, p. 137 note 7

Alexander, the, § 390, p. 477 note 3

Alexis, the, § 34, p. 40

Andersen v. Marten, § 435, p. 555 note 1

André, Major, § 160, p. 198

Ann Green, the, § 92, p. 120 note 2

Anna, the, § 362, p. 443

Anthon v. Fisher, § 195, p. 246 note 1

Antoine v. Morshead, § 101, p. 137 note 3

Apollo, the, § 427, p. 545 note 1

Aryol, the. See Orel

Asgill, Captain, § 249, p. 307

Askold, the, § 347 (3), p. 422

Astrolabe, the, § 186, p. 233

Atalanta, the, § 409, p. 522; § 412, p. 527 note 2

Aurora, the, § 347 (4), p. 423

Awni-Illa, the, § 213, p. 269

Baltica, the, § 88, p. 110 note 2; § 90, p. 116 note 1; § 91, p. 118 note 2

Bellona, the, § 271, p. 332

Benito Estenger, the, § 91, p. 118 note 2

Bentzen v. Boyle, § 90, p. 116 note 4

Bermuda, the, § 385, p. 470; § 400, p. 499 note 1; § 400, p. 500 note 1

Betsey, the, § 385, p. 469 note 1

Bolivia-Peruvian Boundary Dispute (1910), § 16, p. 19

Boudeuse, La. See La Boudeuse

Boussmaker, ex parte, § 100a, p. 134 note 4; § 101, p. 137 note 7

Boussole, the, § 186, p. 233

Brandon v. Curling, § 101, p. 138 note 2

Bundesrath, the, § 400, p. 500; § 401, p. 501 note 1; § 402, p. 502; § 402, p. 503 note 2; § 433, p. 552

Calypso, the, § 384, p. 467 note 3

Camille, the, § 349, p. 426

Captain W. Menzel, the, § 311, p. 376 note

Carolina, the, § 408, p. 519

Caroline, the (1808), § 409, p. 522 note 1

Caroline, the (1904), § 311, p. 376 note 1

Carthage, the, § 403a, p. 506 note 1

Cesarewitch, the, § 347 (4), p. 423

Ceylon, the, § 185, p. 231 note 2

Charlotta, the (1810), § 386, p. 472 note 3

Charlotta, the (1814), § 101, p. 137 note 7

Circassian, the, § 380, p. 463 note 2

Columbia, the, § 382, p. 465 note 3; § 390, p. 477 note 3

Commercen, the, § 401, p. 501 note 2

Cornu v. Blackburne, § 195, p. 246 note 1

Cumberland, the, § 186, p. 233 note 2

Daifje, the, § 225, p. 283 note 4

Danous, the, § 88, p. 112 note 1; § 90, p. 115 note 1

De Fortuyn, the, § 181, p. 225 note 1

De Jager v. Attorney-General, § 100, p. 132 note 3

De Jarnett v. De Giversville, § 100a, p. 134 note 1

Dessaix, the, § 194, p. 244

De Wahl v. Browne, § 100a, p. 135 note 1

De Wütz v. Hendricks, § 352, p. 430 note 2

Diana, the (1799), § 189, p. 236

Diana, the (1904), § 347 (3), p. 422

Discovery, the, § 186, p. 232

Doelwijk, the, § 403, p. 505; § 436, p. 556

Dogger Bank, § 5, p. 7 note 2; § 11, p. 15 note 1

Dorsey v. Kyle, § 100a, p. 134 note 1

Driefontein Consolidated Gold Mines Co. v. Janson, § 100a, p. 134 note 3

Du Belloix v. Lord Waterpark, § 101, p. 137 note 9

Duclair, British coal vessels at, § 365, p. 448

El Arish, Capitulation of, § 229, pp. 287-9

Elba, the, § 348 (2), p. 424

Elisabeth, the, § 189, p. 236

Eliza and Katy, the, § 428, p. 545 note 3

Elizabeth, the, § 386, p. 472 note 8

Elsebe, the, § 425, p. 543 note 2

Emilia, § 88, p. 110 note 2

Espiègle, L'. See L'Espiègle

Esposito v. Bowden, § 101, p. 137 notes 1, 7, and 8; p. 138 note 1

Étoile, L'. See L'Étoile

Euridice, the, § 349, p. 426

Exchange, the, § 390, p. 477 note 3

Fanny, the, § 185, p. 232 note 2; § 424, p. 542 note 2

Felicity, the, § 194, p. 243 note 5; § 431, p. 547 note 2

Florida, the, § 362, p. 443

Försigtigheten, the, § 349, p. 426

Fortuna, the, § 386, p. 472 note 4

Fox and others, the, § 434, p. 554 note 1

Franciska, the, § 370, p. 452 note 2; § 380, p. 462 note 2; § 380, p. 464 note 1; § 381, p. 464 note 2; § 382, p. 465

Freden, the, § 360, p. 441 note 1

Frederick Moltke, the, § 387, p. 473 note 3

Freundschaft, the, § 90, p. 116 note 5

Friendship, the, § 408, p. 518; § 412, p. 527 note 2

Furtado v. Rodgers, § 101, p. 137 note 1; § 101, p. 138 note 2

Gamba v. Le Mesurier, § 101, p. 138 note 2

Gelderland, the, § 354, p. 433

General, the, § 402, p. 502

General Armstrong, the, § 361, p. 442

General Hamilton, the, § 91, p. 118 note 3; § 389, p. 476 note 1

Genoa, Capitulation of, § 226, p. 284 note 1

Georgina, the, § 185, p. 231 note 2

Gerasimo, the, § 371, p. 453 note 3

German contract for cutting trees in French forests, § 282, p. 342

Gist v. Mason, § 101, p. 136 note 3

Gloire, La. See La Gloire

Goodrich and De Forest v. Gordon, § 195, p. 246 note 1

Griswold v. Boddington, § 101, p. 137 note 8

Grossovoi, the, § 347 (3), p. 422

Haimun, the, § 210, p. 262 note 1; § 356, p. 437

Hale, Captain Nathan, § 161, p. 199

Hanger v. Abbot, § 100a, p. 135 note 1

Hardy, Le. See Le Hardy

Harmony, the, § 88, p. 110 note 2

Henkle v. London Exchange Assurance Co., § 101, p. 136 note 3

Henrik and Maria, the, § 375, p. 456 note 1

Herzog, the, § 402, p. 502; § 433, p. 552

Hipsang, the, § 431, p. 548

Hoare v. Allan, § 101, p. 137 note 10

Hobbs v. Henning, § 402, p. 503 note 4

Hoffnung, the, § 384, p. 467 note 3

Hoop, the, § 100a, p. 133 note 2; § 101, p. 137 note 1; § 195, p. 246 note 1

Hope, the, § 412, p. 527 note 3

Hunter, the, § 427, p. 544 note 1

Hurtige Hanne, the, § 386, p. 472 note 5

Hussar, the, § 211, p. 263

Icona, the, § 431, p. 548

Iltis, the, § 348 (1), p. 424

Imina, the, § 399, p. 498 note 1; § 402, p. 503

Indian Chief, the, § 90, p. 116 note 2

Industrie, the, § 410, p. 525 note 1

Inflexible, the, § 223, p. 282

Investigator, the, § 186, p. 233 note 2

Invincible, the, § 223, p. 282

Italy v. Peru (Canevaro claim), § 24, p. 31 note 1

Jager. See De Jager

Jakoga, Major, § 161, p. 199 note 1; § 255, p. 315

James Cook, the, § 385, p. 469 note 3

Jameson Raid, § 56, p. 62

Jan Frederick, the, § 91, p. 118 notes 4 and 6; § 92, p. 120 note 2

Jarnett. See De Jarnett

Jemchug, the, § 347 (4), p. 423

Jemmy, the, § 91, p. 118 note 5

Joan, Le. See Le Joan

Johanna Emilie, the, § 88, p. 110 note 2

Jonge Klassina, the, § 90, p. 116 note 5

Jonge Margaretha, the, § 394, p. 486 note 3

Jonge Pieter, the, § 101, p. 137 note 6

Juno, the, § 387, p. 473 note 4

Kellner v. Le Mesurier, § 101, p. 138 note 2

Knight Commander, the, § 431, p. 548

Korietz, the, § 320, p. 388; § 348 (2), p. 424; § 361, p. 442 note 3

Kow-shing, the, § 89, p. 114 note 1; § 348, p. 424

La Boudeuse, the, § 186, p. 232

La Gloire, the, § 225, p. 283 note 4

La Paix, the, § 90, p. 117 note 1

La Rosina, the, § 225, p. 283 note 3

La Santissima Trinidad, the, § 334, p. 405

Laura-Louise. See Le Laura-Louise

Lavabre v. Wilson, § 101, p. 136 note 3

Le Hardy contre La Voltigeante, § 88, p. 111; § 90, p. 117 note 1

Le Joan, the, § 90, p. 117 note 1

Le Laura-Louise, the, § 90, p. 117 note 1

Lena, the, § 347 (3), p. 422

Le Nicolaüs, the, § 90, p. 117 note 1

L'Espiègle, the, § 362, p. 443

Le Thalia, the, § 90, p. 117 note 1

L'Étoile, the, § 186, p. 232

Leucade, the, § 194, p. 243 note 5; § 431, p. 547 note 2

Lion, the, § 348, p. 424

Lisette, the, § 399, p. 498 note 1

Ludwig, the, § 194, p. 244

Luxor, the, § 404, p. 507; § 437, p. 558

Madison, the, § 409, p. 522 note 2

Madonna delle Gracie, § 101, p. 137 note 4

Malacca, the, § 84, p. 102

Manouba, the, § 413, p. 531 note 1

Margaret, the, § 404, p. 507 note 1

Maria, the (1799), § 422, p. 540 note 1; § 423, p. 541 note 1; § 425, p. 543 note 1; § 434, p. 554 note 1

Maria, the (1805), § 390, p. 477 note 4

Maria v. Hall, § 100a, p. 134 note 2; § 101, p. 137 note 5

Mashona, the, § 101, p. 137 note 1

Mayer v. Reed, § 101, p. 137 note 9

Melville v. De Wold, § 101, p. 137 note 7

Mentor, the, § 272, p. 333 note 1

Mercurius, the, § 390, p. 477 note 3

Meteor, the, § 334, p. 405

Minerva, the, § 362, p. 443

Modeste, the, § 360, p. 441 note 1

Montara, the, § 89, p. 114 note 2

Nancy, the (1800), § 404, p. 507 note 1

Nancy, the (1809), § 380, p. 463 note 2

Nancy Court of Appeal, § 172, p. 215

Naniwa, the, § 89, p. 114 note 1; § 348, p. 423

Neptunus, the (1799), § 384, p. 467 note 3

Neptunus, the (1800), § 384, p. 467 note 3

Nereide, the, § 185, p. 232 note 2; § 424, p. 542, note 2

Neutralitet, the, § 386, p. 472 note 9

New York Life Insurance Co. v. Buck, § 101, p. 138 note 3

New York Life Insurance Co. v. Davis, § 101, p. 138 note 3

New York Life Insurance Co. v. Stathem, § 101, p. 138 note 3

New York Life Insurance Co. v. Symes, § 101, p. 138 note 3

Niagara, the, § 382, p. 465

Nigretia, the, § 408, p. 519 note 2

North-Eastern Boundary Dispute between Great Britain and the United States (1831), § 16, p. 19

North German Confederation Volunteer Fleet scheme, § 84, p. 101

Novara, the, § 186, p. 233

Novik, the, § 347 (4), p. 423

Oki, Captain Teisuki, § 161, p. 199 note 1; § 255, p. 315

Oldhamia, the, § 206, p. 256 note 1; § 431, p. 548

Oleg, the, § 347 (4), p. 423

Olinde Rodrigues, the, § 380, p. 463 note 2

Orel (or Aryol), the, § 206, p. 256 note 1

Orinoco Steamship Co., § 16, p. 19

Orozembo, the, § 408, p. 518; § 408, p. 519

Pacifico, Don, § 35, p. 41; § 44, p. 49

Paix, La. See La Paix

Palme, the, § 186, p. 233

Panaghia Rhomba, the, § 390, p. 477 note 3

Paquette Habana, the, § 187, p. 234 note 1

Pascal, the, § 348 (2), p. 424

Peterburg, the, § 84, p. 102

Peterhoff, the, § 373, p. 454; § 385, p. 470; § 400, p. 500 note 1; § 401, p. 501

Phœnix, the, § 90, p. 116 note 4

Planche v. Fletcher, § 101, p. 136 note 3

Portland, the, § 90, p. 116 note 5

Postilion, the, § 88, p. 112 note 1; § 90, p. 115 note 1

Potts v. Bell, § 101, p. 137 note 1; § 101, p. 138 note 2

Princesse Marie, the, § 431, p. 548

Quang-nam, the, § 410, p. 525, note 1

Ramillies, § 211, p. 263

Rapid, the, § 409, p. 522

Ras-el-Tin Fort, § 223, p. 282

Recovery, the, § 434, p. 554 note 1

Reshitelni, the, § 320, p. 389; § 361, p. 442 note 3

Resolution, the, § 186, p. 232

Reuss, M. de, § 34, p. 40

Richmond, the, § 397, p. 494 note 1

Rolla, the, § 370, p. 452 note 2; § 375, p. 456 note 2

Rose in Bloom, the, § 387, p. 474 note 2

Rosina, La. See La Rosina

St. Kilda, the, § 431, p. 548

St. Nicholas, the, § 428, p. 545 note 4

Samuel, the, § 101, p. 137 note 6

Santissima Trinidad, La. See La Santissima Trinidad

Sarah, the, § 428, p. 545 note 2

Sechs Geschwistern, the, § 91, p. 118 note 5

Seymour v. London and Provincial Marine Insurance Co., § 402, p. 504 note

Shepeler v. Durand, § 100a, p. 133 note 4

Shepherdess, the, § 386, p. 472 note 6

Sicilian Sulphur Monopoly, § 34, p. 39

Silesian Loan, § 37, p. 44; § 437, p. 557

Smolensk, the, § 84, p. 102

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel v. Town of Newhaven, § 99, p. 130 note 1

Spes and Irene, the, § 386, p. 472 note 10

Springbok, the, § 385, p. 470; § 390, p. 477; § 400, p. 500 note 1; § 401, p. 501

Stackelberg, Baron de, § 37, p. 43

Stephen Hart, the, § 385, p. 470; § 400, p. 499 note 1

Stert, the, § 388, p. 474 note 3

Sutton v. Sutton, § 99, p. 130 note 1

Swineherd, the, § 271, p. 332

Sybille, the, § 211, p. 263

Talbot, the, § 348 (2), p. 424

Temeraire, the, § 223, p. 282

Tetardos, the, § 431, p. 548

Teutonia, the, § 101, p. 138 note 1

Thalia, Le. See Le Thalia.

Thea, the, § 431, p. 548

Thirty Hogsheads of Sugar v. Boyle, § 90, p. 116 note 4

Trende Sostre, the, § 399, p. 498 note 1

Trent, the, § 408, p. 519 note 3; § 431, p. 530

Twee Gebroeders, the, § 362, p. 443

Variag, the, § 320, p. 388; § 348 (2), p. 424; § 361, p. 442 note 3

Vega, the, § 186, p. 233

Venezuelan Boundary Dispute (1900), § 14, p. 18

Venus, the (1803), § 225, p. 283 note 3

Venus, the (1814), § 88, p. 112 note 1; § 90, p. 116 note 3

Victor, the, § 349, p. 427

Vigilantia, the, § 91, p. 118 note 2

Vorwärts, the, § 194, p. 244

Vrouw Judith, the, § 376, p. 458 note 1; § 384, p. 467 note 3; § 387, p. 474 note 1

Vrow Houwina, the, § 401, p. 501

Vrow Margaretha, the, § 91, p. 118 note 4

Wachuset, the, § 362, p. 443

Wahl. See De Wahl

War Onskan, the, § 432, p. 551 note 3

Washburne, § 157, p. 194

Wells v. Williams, § 100a, p. 133 note 3

Welvaart van Pillaw, the, § 389 p. 476 note 1

William, the, § 400, p. 499 note 1

Willison v. Paterson, § 101, p. 137 note 2

Yangtsze Insurance Association v. Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Company, § 407, p. 516 note 1

Young Jacob and Joanna, the, § 187, p. 234 note 2

CONTENTS

OF

THE SECOND VOLUME

PART I

CHAPTER I

AMICABLE SETTLEMENT OF STATE DIFFERENCES

I. State Differences and their Amicable Settlement in General

SECT.     PAGE

1. Legal and political International Differences 3

2. International Law not exclusively concerned with Legal Differences 4

3. Amicable in contradistinction to compulsive settlement of Differences 4

II. Negotiation

4. In what Negotiation consists 6

5. International Commissions of Inquiry 6

6. Effect of Negotiation 9

III. Good Offices and Mediation

7. Occasions for Good Offices and Mediation 10

8. Right and Duty of offering, requesting, and rendering Good Offices and Mediation 10

9. Good Offices in contradistinction to Mediation 11

10. Good Offices and Mediation according to the Hague Arbitration Convention 12

11. Value of Good Offices and Mediation 14

IV. Arbitration

12. Conception of Arbitration 16

13. Treaty of Arbitration 16

14. Who is to Arbitrate? 17

15. On what principles Arbitrators proceed and decide 18

16. Binding force of Arbitral Verdict 18

17. What differences can be decided by Arbitration 19

18. Value of Arbitration 22

V. Arbitration according to the Hague Convention

19. Arbitral Justice in general 23

20. Arbitration Treaty and appointment of Arbitrators 26

21. Procedure of and before the Arbitral Tribunal 27

22. Arbitral Award 30

23. Binding force of Awards 30

24. Award binding upon Parties only 31

25. Costs of Arbitration 32

25a. Arbitration by Summary Procedure 32

CHAPTER II

COMPULSIVE SETTLEMENT OF STATE DIFFERENCES

I. On Compulsive Means of Settlement of State Differences in General

26. Conception and kinds of Compulsive Means of Settlement 34

27. Compulsive Means in contradistinction to War 34

28. Compulsive Means in contradistinction to an Ultimatum and Demonstrations 35

II. Retorsion

29. Conception and Character of Retorsion 36

30. Retorsion, when justified 37

31. Retorsion, how exercised 37

32. Value of Retorsion 38

III. Reprisals

33. Conception of Reprisals in contradistinction to Retorsion 38

34. Reprisals admissible for all International Delinquencies 39

35. Reprisals admissible for International Delinquencies only 40

36. Reprisals, by whom performed 41

37. Objects of Reprisals 42

38. Positive and Negative Reprisals 44

39. Reprisals must be proportionate 44

40. Embargo 44

41. Reprisals to be preceded by Negotiations and to be stopped when Reparation is made 46

42. Reprisals during Peace in contradistinction to Reprisals during War 46

43. Value of Reprisals 46

IV. Pacific Blockade

44. Development of practice of Pacific Blockade 48

45. Admissibility of Pacific Blockade 50

46. Pacific Blockade and vessels of third States 51

47. Pacific Blockade and vessels of the blockaded State 52

48. Manner of Pacific Blockade 52

49. Value of Pacific Blockade 53

V. Intervention

50. Intervention in contradistinction to Participation in a difference 54

51. Mode of Intervention 55

52. Time of Intervention 55

PART II

WAR

CHAPTER I

ON WAR IN GENERAL

I. Characteristics of War

53. War no illegality 59

54. Conception of War 60

55. War a contention 61

56. War a contention between States 62

57. War a contention between States through armed forces 63

58. War a contention between States for the purpose of overpowering each other 67

59. Civil War 68

60. Guerilla War 70

II. Causes, Kinds, and Ends of War

61. Rules of Warfare independent of Causes of War 72

62. Causes of War 73

63. Just Causes of War 74

64. Causes in contradistinction to Pretexts for War 75

65. Different kinds of War 76

66. Ends of War 76

III. The Laws of War

67. Origin of the Laws of War 78

68. The latest Development of the Laws of War 79

69. Binding force of the Laws of War 83

IV. The Region of War

70. Region of War in contradistinction to Theatre of War 85

71. Particular Region of every War 86

72. Exclusion from Region of War through Neutralisation 88

73. Asserted exclusion of the Baltic Sea from the Region of War 90

V. The Belligerents

74. Qualification to become a Belligerent (facultas bellandi) 90

75. Possibility in contradistinction to qualification to become a Belligerent 91

76. Insurgents as a Belligerent Power 92

77. Principal and accessory Belligerent Parties 93

VI. The Armed Forces of the Belligerents

78. Regular Armies and Navies 94

79. Non-combatant Members of Armed Forces 95

80. Irregular Forces 96

81. Levies en masse 97

82. Barbarous Forces 98

83. Privateers 99

84. Converted Merchantmen 100

85. The Crews of Merchantmen 104

86. Deserters and Traitors 106

VII. Enemy Character

87. On Enemy Character in general 106

88. Enemy Character of Individuals 108

89. Enemy Character of Vessels 112

90. Enemy Character of Goods 115

91. Transfer of Enemy Vessels 117

92. Transfer of Goods on Enemy Vessels 119

CHAPTER II

THE OUTBREAK OF WAR

I. Commencement of War

93. Commencement of War in General 121

94. Declaration of War 123

95. Ultimatum 125

96. Initiative hostile Acts of War 126

II. Effects of the Outbreak of War

97. General Effects of the Outbreak of War 128

98. Rupture of Diplomatic Intercourse and Consular Activity 129

99. Cancellation of Treaties 129

100. Precarious position of Belligerents' subjects on Enemy Territory 131

100a. Persona standi in judicio on Enemy Territory 133

101. Intercourse, especially Trading, between Subjects of Belligerents 135

102. Position of Belligerents' Property in the Enemy State 139

102a. Effect of the Outbreak of War on Merchantmen 140

CHAPTER III

WARFARE ON LAND

I. On Land Warfare in General

103. Aims and Means of Land Warfare 144

104. Lawful and Unlawful Practices of Land Warfare 144

105. Objects of the Means of Warfare 145

106. Land Warfare in contradistinction to Sea Warfare 145

II. Violence against Enemy Persons

107. On Violence in general against Enemy Persons 146

108. Killing and Wounding of Combatants 146

109. Refusal of Quarter 147

110. Lawful and Unlawful Means of killing and wounding Combatants 148

111. Explosive Bullets 149

112. Expanding (Dum-Dum) Bullets 149

113. Projectiles diffusing Asphyxiating or Deleterious Gases 150

114. Violence directed from Air-Vessels 150

115. Violence against non-combatant Members of Armed Forces 151

116. Violence against Private Enemy Persons 151

117. Violence against the Head of the Enemy State and against Officials in Important Positions 153

III. Treatment of Wounded, and Dead Bodies

118. Origin of Geneva Convention 154

119. The Wounded and the Sick 157

120. Medical Units and Establishments, and Material 158

121. Personnel 159

122. Convoys of Evacuation 160

123. Distinctive Emblem 161

124. Treatment of the Dead 162

124a. Application of the Geneva Convention, and Prevention of Abuses 163

124b. General provisions of the Geneva Convention 164

IV. Captivity

125. Development of International Law regarding Captivity 165

126. Treatment of Prisoners of War 167

127. Who may claim to be Prisoners of War 169

128. Discipline 169

129. Release on Parole 170

130. Bureau of Information 171

131. Relief Societies 171

132. End of Captivity 172

V. Appropriation and Utilisation of Public Enemy Property

133. Appropriation of all the Enemy Property no longer admissible 174

134. Immoveable Public Property 174

135. Immoveable Property of Municipalities, and of Religious, Charitable, and the like Institutions 175

136. Utilisation of Public Buildings 175

137. Moveable Public Property 176

138. Moveable Property of Municipalities, and of Religious, Charitable, and the like Institutions 177

139. Booty on the Battlefield 177

VI. Appropriation and Utilisation of Private Enemy Property

140. Immoveable Private Property 179

141. Private War Material and Means of Transport 180

142. Works of Art and Science, Historical Monuments 180

143. Other Private Personal Property 180

144. Booty on the Battlefield 181

145. Private Enemy Property brought into a Belligerent's Territory 182

VII. Requisitions and Contributions

146. War must support War 183

147. Requisitions in Kind, and Quartering 185

148. Contributions 186

VIII. Destruction of Enemy Property

149. Wanton destruction prohibited 187

150. Destruction for the purpose of Offence and Defence 188

151. Destruction in marching, reconnoitring, and conducting Transport 188

152. Destruction of Arms, Ammunition, and Provisions 189

153. Destruction of Historical Monuments, Works of Art, and the like 189

154. General Devastation 190

IX. Assault, Siege, and Bombardment

155. Assault, Siege, and Bombardment, when lawful 191

156. Assault, how carried out 193

157. Siege, how carried out 193

158. Bombardment, how carried out 194

X. Espionage and Treason

159. Twofold Character of Espionage and Treason 196

160. Espionage in contradistinction to Scouting and Despatch-bearing 197

161. Punishment of Espionage 198

162. Treason 199

XI. Ruses

163. Character of Ruses of War 200

164. Different kinds of Stratagems 201

165. Stratagems in contradistinction to Perfidy 202

XII. Occupation of Enemy Territory

166. Occupation as an Aim of Warfare 204

167. Occupation, when effected 206

168. Occupation, when ended 210

169. Rights and Duties in General of the Occupant 210

170. Rights of the Occupant regarding the Inhabitants 211

171. Position of Government Officials and Municipal Functionaries during Occupation 213

172. Position of Courts of Justice during Occupation 214

CHAPTER IV

WARFARE ON SEA

I. On Sea Warfare in General

173. Aims and Means of Sea Warfare 216

174. Lawful and Unlawful Practices of Sea Warfare 217

175. Objects of the Means of Sea Warfare 218

176. Development of International Law regarding Private Property on Sea 218

177. Declaration of Paris 220

178. The Principle of Appropriation of Private Enemy Vessels and Enemy Goods thereon 221

179. Impending Codification of Law of Sea Warfare 224

II. Attack and Seizure of Enemy Vessels

180. Importance of Attack and Seizure of Enemy Vessels 225

181. Attack, when legitimate 225

182. Attack, how effected 226

182a. Submarine Contact Mines 227

183. Duty of giving Quarter 231

184. Seizure 231

185. Effect of Seizure 231

186. Immunity of Vessels charged with Religious, Scientific, or Philanthropic Mission 232

187. Immunity of Fishing-boats and small boats employed in local Trade 234

188. Immunity of Merchantmen at the Outbreak of War on their Voyage to and from a Belligerent's Port 235

189. Vessels in Distress 236

190. Immunity of Hospital and Cartel Ships 236

191. Immunity of Mail-boats and Mail-bags 236

III. Appropriation, and Destruction of Enemy Merchantmen

192. Prize Courts 238

193. Conduct of Prize to Port of Prize Court 241

194. Destruction of Prize 242

195. Ransom of Prize 245

196. Loss of Prize, especially Recapture 246

197. Fate of Prize 247

198. Vessels belonging to Subjects of Neutral States, but sailing under Enemy Flag 248

199. Effect of Sale of Enemy Vessels during War 248

200. Goods sold by and to Enemy Subjects during War 249

IV. Violence against Enemy Persons

201. Violence against Combatants 249

202. Violence against Non-combatant Members of Naval Forces 250

203. Violence against Enemy Individuals not belonging to the Naval Forces 251

V. Treatment of Wounded and Shipwrecked

204. Adaptation of Geneva Convention to Sea Warfare 252

205. The Wounded, Sick, and Shipwrecked 253

205a. Treatment of the Dead 254

206. Hospital Ships 254

206a. Hospital Ships in Neutral Ports 256

206b. Sick-Bays 257

207. Distinctive Colour and Emblem of Hospital Ships 258

208. Neutral Vessels assisting the Wounded, Sick, or Shipwrecked 259

209. The Religious, Medical, and Hospital Staff 260

209a. Application of Convention X., and Prevention of Abuses 260

209b. General Provisions of Convention X. 261

VI. Espionage, Treason, Ruses

210. Espionage and Treason 262

211. Ruses 262

VII. Requisitions, Contributions, Bombardment

212. Requisitions and Contributions upon Coast Towns 264

213. Bombardment of the Enemy Coast 266

VIII. Interference with Submarine Telegraph Cables

214. Uncertainty of Rules concerning Interference with Submarine Telegraph Cables 271

CHAPTER V

NON-HOSTILE RELATIONS OF BELLIGERENTS

I. On non-hostile Relations in General between Belligerents

215. Fides etiam hosti servanda 273

216. Different kinds of Non-hostile Relations 274

217. Licences to Trade 275

II. Passports, Safe-conducts, Safeguards

218. Passports and Safe-conducts 276

219. Safeguards 277

III. Flags of Truce

220. Meaning of Flags of Truce 278

221. Treatment of Unadmitted Flag-bearers 279

222. Treatment of Admitted Flag-bearers 279

223. Abuse of Flag of Truce 281

IV. Cartels

224. Definition and Purpose of Cartels 282

225. Cartel Ships 283

V. Capitulations

226. Character and Purpose of Capitulations 284

227. Contents of Capitulations 285

228. Form of Capitulations 286

229. Competence to conclude Capitulations 287

230. Violation of Capitulations 289

VI. Armistices

231. Character and Kinds of Armistices 290

232. Suspensions of Arms 291

233. General Armistices 291

234. Partial Armistices 293

235. Competence to conclude Armistices 293

236. Form of Armistices 294

237. Contents of Armistices 294

238. Commencement of Armistices 296

239. Violation of Armistices 297

240. End of Armistices 299

CHAPTER VI

MEANS OF SECURING LEGITIMATE WARFARE

I. On Means in General of securing Legitimate Warfare

241. Legitimate and Illegitimate Warfare 300

242. How Legitimate Warfare is on the whole secured 301

II. Complaints, Good Offices and Mediation, Intervention

243. Complaints lodged with the Enemy 302

244. Complaints lodged with Neutrals 303

245. Good Offices and Mediation 303

246. Intervention on the part of Neutrals 304

III. Reprisals

247. Reprisals between Belligerents in contradistinction to Reprisals in time of Peace 305

248. Reprisals admissible for every Illegitimate Act of Warfare 305

249. Danger of Arbitrariness in Reprisals 306

250. Proposed Restriction of Reprisals 308

IV. Punishment of War Crimes

251. Conception of War Crimes 309

252. Different kinds of War Crimes 310

253. Violations of Rules regarding Warfare 310

254. Hostilities in Arms by Private Individuals 312

255. Espionage and War Treason 313

256. Marauding 316

257. Mode of Punishment of War Crimes 316

V. Taking of Hostages

258. Former Practice of taking Hostages 317

259. Modern Practice of taking Hostages 317

VI. Compensation

259a. How the Principle of Compensation for Violations of the Laws of War arose 319

259b. Compensation for Violations of the Hague Regulations 320

CHAPTER VII

END OF WAR, AND POSTLIMINIUM

I. On Termination of War in General

260. War a Temporary Condition 322

261. Three Modes of Termination of War 322

II. Simple Cessation of Hostilities

262. Exceptional Occurrence of simple Cessation of Hostilities 323

263. Effect of Termination of War through simple Cessation of Hostilities 324

III. Subjugation

264. Subjugation in contradistinction to Conquest 325

265. Subjugation a formal End of War 326

IV. Treaty of Peace

266. Treaty of Peace the most frequent End of War 327

267. Peace Negotiations 328

268. Preliminaries of Peace 329

269. Form and Parts of Peace Treaties 330

270. Competence to conclude Peace 330

271. Date of Peace 331

V. Effects of Treaty of Peace

272. Restoration of Condition of Peace 332

273. Principle of Uti Possidetis 334

274. Amnesty 334

275. Release of Prisoners of War 335

276. Revival of Treaties 336

VI. Performance of Treaty of Peace

277. Treaty of Peace, how to be carried out 337

278. Breach of Treaty of Peace 338

VII. Postliminium

279. Conception of Postliminium 339

280. Postliminium according to International Law, in contradistinction to Postliminium according to Municipal Law 340

281. Revival of the Former Condition of Things 341

282. Validity of Legitimate Acts 342

283. Invalidity of Illegitimate Acts 343

284. No Postliminium after Interregnum 343

PART III

NEUTRALITY

CHAPTER I

ON NEUTRALITY IN GENERAL

I. Development of the Institution of Neutrality

285. Neutrality not practised in Ancient Times 347

286. Neutrality during the Middle Ages 348

287. Neutrality during the Seventeenth Century 349

288. Progress of Neutrality during the Eighteenth Century 350

289. First Armed Neutrality 352

290. The French Revolution and the Second Armed Neutrality 354

291. Neutrality during the Nineteenth Century 357

292. Neutrality in the Twentieth Century 359

II. Characteristics of Neutrality

293. Conception of Neutrality 361

294. Neutrality an Attitude of Impartiality 362

295. Neutrality an Attitude creating Rights and Duties 363

296. Neutrality an Attitude of States 363

297. No Cessation of Intercourse during Neutrality between Neutrals and Belligerents 365

298. Neutrality an Attitude during War (Neutrality in Civil War) 365

299. Neutrality to be recognised by the Belligerents 367

III. Different Kinds of Neutrality

300. Perpetual Neutrality 368

301. General and Partial Neutrality 369

302. Voluntary and Conventional Neutrality 369

303. Armed Neutrality 369

304. Benevolent Neutrality 370

305. Perfect and Qualified Neutrality 370

306. Some Historical Examples of Qualified Neutrality 371

IV. Commencement and End of Neutrality

307. Neutrality commences with Knowledge of the War 373

308. Commencement of Neutrality in Civil War 374

309. Establishment of Neutrality by Declarations 374

310. Municipal Neutrality Laws 375

311. British Foreign Enlistment Act 375

312. End of Neutrality 377

CHAPTER II

RELATIONS BETWEEN BELLIGERENTS AND NEUTRALS

I. Rights and Duties deriving from Neutrality

313. Conduct in General of Neutrals and Belligerents  378

314. What Rights and Duties of Neutrals and of Belligerents there are  378

315. Rights and Duties of Neutrals contested 379

316. Contents of Duty of Impartiality 381

317. Duty of Impartiality continuously growing more intense 382

317a. Neutrality Conventions of the Second Peace Conference 383

318. Contents of Duty of Belligerents to treat Neutrals in accordance with their Impartiality 384

319. Contents of Duty not to suppress Intercourse between Neutrals and the Enemy 385

II. Neutrals and Military Operations

320. Hostilities by and against Neutrals 386

321. Furnishing Troops and Men-of-War to Belligerents 389

322. Subjects of Neutrals fighting among Belligerent Forces 390

323. Passage of Troops and War Material through Neutral Territory 391

324. Passage of Wounded through Neutral Territory 392

325. Passage of Men-of-War 393

326. Occupation of Neutral Territory by Belligerents 394

327. Prize Courts on Neutral Territory 395

328. Belligerent's Prizes in Neutral Ports 395

III. Neutrals and Military Preparations

329. Depôts and Factories on Neutral Territory 397

330. Levy of Troops, and the like 398

331. Passage of Bodies of Men intending to Enlist 399

332. Organisation of Hostile Expeditions 400

333. Use of Neutral Territory as Base of Naval Operations 400

334. Building and Fitting-out of Vessels intended for Naval Operations 405

335. The Alabama Case and the Three Rules of Washington 406

IV. Neutral Asylum to Land Forces and War Material

336. On Neutral Asylum in General 409

337. Neutral Territory and Prisoners of War 410

338. Fugitive Soldiers on Neutral Territory 413

339. Neutral Territory and Fugitive Troops 413

340. Neutral Territory and Non-combatant Members of Belligerent Forces 415

341. Neutral Territory and War Material of Belligerents 415

V. Neutral Asylum to Naval Forces

342. Asylum to Naval Forces in contradistinction to Asylum to Land Forces 417

343. Neutral Asylum to Naval Forces Optional 417

344. Asylum to Naval Forces in Distress 418

345. Exterritoriality of Men-of-War during Asylum 419

346. Facilities to Men-of-War during Asylum 420

347. Abuse of Asylum to be prohibited 420

348. Neutral Men-of-War as an Asylum 423

348a. Neutral Territory and Shipwrecked Soldiers 424

VI. Supplies and Loans to Belligerents

349. Supply on the part of Neutrals 426

350. Supply on the part of Subjects of Neutrals 427

351. Loans and Subsidies on the part of Neutrals 430

352. Loans and Subsidies on the part of Subjects of Neutrals 430

VII. Services to Belligerents

353. Pilotage 432

354. Transport on the part of Neutrals 433

355. Transport on the part of Neutral Merchantmen and by neutral rolling stock 434

356. Information regarding Military and Naval Operations 434

VIII. Violation of Neutrality

357. Violation of Neutrality in the narrower and in the wider sense of the Term 438

358. Violation in contradistinction to End of Neutrality 439

359. Consequences of Violations of Neutrality 439

360. Neutrals not to acquiesce in Violations of Neutrality committed by a Belligerent 440

361. Case of the General Armstrong 442

362. Mode of exacting Reparation from Belligerents for Violations of Neutrality 442

363. Negligence on the part of Neutrals 444

363a. Laying of Submarine Contact Mines by Neutrals 445

IX. Right of Angary

364. The Obsolete Right of Angary 446

365. The Modern Right of Angary 447

366. Right of Angary concerning Neutral Rolling Stock 448

367. Right of Angary not deriving from Neutrality 449

CHAPTER III

BLOCKADE

I. Conception of Blockade

368. Definition of Blockade 450

369. Blockade, Strategic and Commercial 452

370. Blockade to be Universal 452

371. Blockade, Outwards and Inwards 453

372. What Places can be Blockaded 453

373. Blockade of International Rivers 454

374. Justification of Blockade 455

II. Establishment of Blockade

375. Competence to establish Blockade 456

376. Declaration and Notification of Blockade 456

377. Length of Time for Egress of Neutral Vessels 459

378. End of Blockade 460

III. Effectiveness of Blockade

379. Effective in contradistinction to Fictitious Blockade 461

380. Condition of Effectiveness of Blockade 461

381. Amount of Danger which creates Effectiveness 464

382. Cessation of Effectiveness 464

IV. Breach of Blockade

383. Definition of Breach of Blockade 466

384. No Breach without Notice of Blockade 466

385. The former practice as to what constitutes an Attempt to break Blockade 468

385a. What constitutes an Attempt to break Blockade according to the Declaration of London 470

386. When Ingress is not considered Breach of Blockade 472

387. When Egress is not considered Breach of Blockade 473

388. Passage through Unblockaded Canal no Breach of Blockade 474

V. Consequences of Breach of Blockade

389. Capture of Blockade-running Vessels 475

390. Penalty for Breach of Blockade 476

CHAPTER IV

CONTRABAND

I. Conception of Contraband

391. Definition of Contraband of War 480

392. Absolute and conditional Contraband, and free Articles 481

393. Articles absolutely Contraband 483

394. Articles conditionally Contraband 485

395. Hostile Destination essential to Contraband 490

396. Free Articles 492

396a. Articles destined for the use of the carrying Vessel, or to aid the Wounded 493

397. Contraband Vessels 494

II. Carriage of Contraband

398. Carriage of Contraband Penal by the Municipal Law of Belligerents 495

399. Direct Carriage of Contraband 497

400. Circuitous Carriage of Contraband 499

401. Indirect Carriage of Contraband (Doctrine of Continuous Transports) 500

402. The Case of the Bundesrath 502

403. Continental support to the Doctrine of Continuous Transports 504

403a. Partial Recognition by the Declaration of London of the Doctrine of Continuous Voyages 505

III. Consequences of Carriage of Contraband

404. Capture for Carriage of Contraband 506

405. Penalty for Carriage of Contraband according to the Practice hitherto prevailing 508

406. Penalty according to the Declaration of London for Carriage of Contraband 511

406a. Seizure of Contraband without Seizure of the Vessel 513

CHAPTER V

UNNEUTRAL SERVICE

I. The Different Kinds of Unneutral Service

407. Unneutral Service in general 515

408. Carriage of Persons for the Enemy 517

409. Transmission of Intelligence to the Enemy 521

410. Unneutral Service creating Enemy Character 524

II. Consequences of Unneutral Service

411. Capture for Unneutral Service 526

412. Penalty for Unneutral Service 527

413. Seizure of Enemy Persons and Despatches without Seizure of Vessel 530

CHAPTER VI

VISITATION, CAPTURE, AND TRIAL OF NEUTRAL VESSELS

I. Visitation

414. Conception of Right of Visitation 533

415. Right of Visitation, by whom, when, and where exercised 534

416. Only Private Vessels may be Visited 535

417. Vessels under Convoy 535

418. No Universal Rules regarding Mode of Visitation 537

419. Stopping of Vessels for the Purpose of Visitation  538

420. Visit 538

421. Search 539

422. Consequences of Resistance to Visitation 540

423. What constitutes Resistance 541

424. Sailing under Enemy Convoy equivalent to Resistance 542

425. Resistance by Neutral Convoy 543

426. Deficiency of Papers 543

427. Spoliation, Defacement, and Concealment of Papers 544

428. Double and False Papers 545

II. Capture

429. Grounds and Mode of Capture 546

430. Effect of Capture of Neutral Vessels, and their Conduct to Port 546

431. Destruction of Neutral Prizes 547

432. Ransom and Recapture of Neutral Prizes 551

433. Release after Capture 551

III. Trial of captured Neutral Vessels

434. Trial of Captured Vessels a Municipal Matter 553

435. Result of Trial 555

436. Trial after Conclusion of Peace 555

437. Protests and Claims of Neutrals after Trial 557

CHAPTER VII

THE INTERNATIONAL PRIZE COURT

I. Proposals for International Prize Courts

438. Early Projects 559

439. German Project of 1907 561

440. British Project of 1907 562

441. Convention XII. of the Second Peace Conference 563

II. Constitution and Competence of the International Prize Court

442. Personnel 565

443. Deciding Tribunal 566

444. Administrative Council and International Bureau 569

445. Agents, Counsel, Advocates, and Attorneys 569

446. Competence 569

447. What Law to be applied 571

III. Procedure in the International Prize Court

448. Entering of Appeal 572

449. Pleadings and Discussion 574

450. Judgment 575

451. Expenses and Costs 576

IV. Action in Damages instead of Appeal

452. Reason for Action in Damages instead of Appeal 577

453. Procedure if Action for Damages is brought 578

APPENDICES

I. Declaration of Paris of 1856 583

II. Declaration of St. Petersburg of 1868 584

III. Declaration concerning Expanding Bullets of 1899 585

IV. Declaration concerning the Diffusion of Asphyxiating Gases of 1899 586

V. Geneva Convention of 1906 587

VI. Final Act of the Second Hague Peace Conference of 1907 591

I. Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes      592

II. Convention respecting the Limitation of the Employment of Force for the Recovery of Contract Debts      601

III. Convention relative to the Opening of Hostilities      602

IV. Convention concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land      603

V. Convention respecting the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in War on Land      609

VI. Convention relative to the Status of Merchantmen at the Outbreak of Hostilities      612

VII. Convention relative to the Conversion of Merchantmen into Men-of-War      613

VIII. Convention relative to the Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines      614

IX. Convention respecting Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War      616

X. Convention for the Adaptation of the Principles of the Geneva Convention to Maritime Warfare      617

XI. Convention relative to certain Restrictions on the Exercise of the Right of Capture in Maritime War      621

XII. Convention concerning the Establishment of an International Prize Court      622

XIII. Convention concerning the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Maritime War      629

XIV. Declaration concerning the Prohibition of the Discharge of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons      632

XV. Draft Convention concerning the Creation of a Judicial Arbitration Court      632

VII. Declaration of London of 1909 (including the Report of the Drafting Committee) 637

VIII. Additional Protocol, of 1910, to the Hague Convention concerning the Establishment of an International Prize Court 665

IX. Foreign Enlistment Act, 1870 667

X. The Naval Prize Act, 1864 674

XI. The Prize Courts Act, 1894 682

XII. Naval Prize Bill of 1911 683

XIII. Geneva Convention Act, 1911 690

INDEX 691

PART I

SETTLEMENT OF STATE DIFFERENCES

CHAPTER I

AMICABLE SETTLEMENT OF STATE DIFFERENCES

I

STATE DIFFERENCES AND THEIR AMICABLE SETTLEMENT IN GENERAL

Twiss, II. §§ 1-3—Ullmann, §§ 148-150—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 5-12—Heffter, §§ 105-107—Rivier, II. § 57—Bonfils, No. 930—Despagnet, No. 469—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. Nos. 2580-2583—Calvo, III. §§ 1670-1671—Martens, II. §§ 101-102—Fiore, II. Nos. 1192-1198, and Code, No. 1246—Wagner, Zur Lehre von den Streiterledigungsmitteln des Völkerrechts (1900.)

Legal and political International Differences.

§ 1. International differences can arise from a variety of grounds. Between the extremes of a simple and comparatively unimportant act of discourtesy committed by one State against another, on the one hand, and, on the other, so gross an insult as must necessarily lead to war, there are many other grounds varying in nature and importance. State differences are correctly divided into legal and political. Legal differences arise from acts for which States have to bear responsibility, be it acts of their own or of their Parliaments, judicial and administrative officials, armed forces, or individuals living on their territory.[1] Political differences are the result of a conflict of political interests. But although this distinction is certainly theoretically correct and of practical importance, frequently in practice a sharp line cannot be drawn. For in many cases States either hide their political interests behind a claim for an alleged injury, or make a positive, but comparatively insignificant, injury a pretext for the carrying out of political ends. Nations which have been for years facing each other armed to the teeth, waiting for a convenient moment to engage in hostilities, are only too ready to obliterate the boundary line between legal and political differences. Between such nations a condition of continuous friction prevails which makes it difficult, if not impossible, in every case which arises to distinguish the legal from the political character of the difference.

[1] See above, vol. I. § 149.

International Law not exclusively concerned with Legal Differences.

§ 2. It is often maintained that the Law of Nations is concerned with legal differences only, political differences being a matter not of law but of politics. Now it is certainly true that only legal differences can be settled by a juristic decision of the underlying juristic question, whatever may be the way in which such decision is arrived at. But although political differences cannot be the objects of juristic decision, they can be settled short of war by amicable or compulsive means. And legal differences, although within the scope of juristic decision, can be of such kinds as to prevent the parties from submitting them to such decision, without being of a nature that they cannot be settled peaceably at all. Moreover, although the distinction between legal and political differences is certainly correct in theory and of importance in practice, nevertheless, in practice, a sharp line frequently cannot be drawn, as has just been pointed out. Therefore the Law of Nations is not exclusively concerned with legal differences, for in fact all amicable means of settling legal differences are likewise means of settling political differences, and so are two of the compulsive means of settling differences—namely, pacific blockade and intervention.

Amicable in contradistinction to compulsive settlement of Differences.

§ 3. Political and legal differences can be settled either by amicable