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What is HVDC?
HVDC stands for High Voltage Direct Current and is today a well-proven technology employed for power transmission all over the world. In total about 70,000 MW HVDC transmission capacity is installed in more than 90 projects. The HVDC technology is used to transmit electricity over long distances by overhead transmission lines or submarine cables. It is also used to interconnect separate power systems, where traditional alternating current (AC) connections can not be used. There are three different categories of HVDC transmissions: 1. Point to point transmissions 2. Back-to-back stations 3. Multi-terminal systems
The development of the HVDC technology started in the late 1920s, and only after some 25 years of extensive development and pioneering work the first commercially operating scheme was commissioned in 1954. This was a link between the Swedish mainland and the island of Gotland in the Baltic sea. The power rating was 20 MW and the transmission voltage 100 kV. At that time mercury arc valves were used for the conversion between AC and DC, and the control equipment was using vacuum tubes.
A significant improvement of the HVDC Technology came around 1970 when thyristor valves were introduced in place of the mercury arc valves. This reduced the size and complexity of HVDC converter stations substantially. The use of microcomputers in the control equipment in today's transmissions has also contributed to making HVDC the powerful alternative in power transmission that it is today.
environmental benefits.
The HVDC technology (High Voltage Direct Current) is used to transmit electricity over long distances by overhead transmission lines or submarine cables. It is also used to interconnect separate power systems, where traditional alternating current (AC) connections can not be used. In a high voltage direct current (HVDC) system, electric power is taken from one point in a three-phase AC network, converted to DC in a converter station, transmitted to the receiving point by an overhead line or cable and then converted back to AC in another converter station and injected into the receiving AC network. Typically, an HVDC transmission has a rated power of more than 100 MW and many are in the 1,000 - 3,000 MW range.
Aerial overview of the 3000MW HVDC converter station at Longquan, China( Three Gorges-Changzhou HVDC transmission)
HVDC transmissions are used for transmission of power over long or very
long
and accurately as to both the power level and the direction. This possibility is
often used in order to improve the performance and efficiency of the connected AC networks.
1. Lower investment cost 2. Long distance water crossing 3. Lower losses 4. Asynchronous interconnections 5. Controllability 6. Limit short circuit currents 7. Environment
In general terms the different reasons/ADVANTAGES for using HVDC can be divided in two main groups, namely: 1. HVDC is necessary or desirable from the technical point of view (i.e. controllability). 2. HVDC results in a lower total investment (including lower losses) and/or is environmentally superior.
The importance of the break-even-distance concept should not be overstressed, since several other factors, such as controllability, are important in the selection between AC or HVDC.
Typical investment costs for an overhead line transmission with AC and HVDC.
Typical tower structures and rights-of-way for alternative transmission systems of 2,000 MW capacity.
AC versus DC (continued)
Right-of-way for an AC Line designed to carry 2,000 MW is more than 70% wider than the right-of-way for a DC line of equivalent capacity.
This is particularly important where land is expensive or permitting is a problem.
HVDC light is now also transmitted via underground cable the recently commissioned Murray-Link in Australia is 200 MW over 177 km.
Can reduce land and environmental costs, but is more expensive per km than overhead line.
AC versus DC (continued)
Above costs are on a per km basis. The remaining costs also differ:
The need to convert to and from AC implies the terminal stations for a DC line cost more. There are extra losses in DC/AC conversion relative to AC voltage transformation. Operation and maintenance costs are lower for an optimized HVDC than for an equal capacity optimized AC system.
AC versus DC (continued)
The cost advantage of HVDC increases with the length, but decreases with the capacity, of a link. For both AC and DC, design characteristics trade-off fixed and variable costs, but losses are lower on the optimized DC link. The time profile of use of the link affects the cost of losses, since the MC of electricity fluctuates. Interest rates also affect the trade-off between capital and operating costs.
Comparison of the losses for overhead line transmissions of 1200 MW with AC and HVDC.
In many cases the HVDC link can also be used to improve the AC system performance by means of additional control facilities. Normally these controls are activated automatically when certain criteria are fulfilled. Such automatic control functions could be constant frequency control, redistribution of the power flow in the AC network, damping of power swings in the AC networks etc. In many cases such additional control functions can make it possible to increase the safe power transmission capability of AC transmission lines where stability is a limitation.
Today's advanced semi-conductor technology, utilized in both power thyristors and microprocessors for the control system, has created almost unlimited possibilities for the control of the HVDC transmission system. Different software programs are used for different kind of studies.
Normally a positive sequence program for example ABBs SIMPOW (now transferred to STRI AB) or PTIs PSS/E program is used for load-flow and stability studies. For more detailed investigations of the performance of the inner control loops of the converter and its interaction with nearby network is simulated in a full three-phase representation program such as PSCAD/EMTDC.
7) Environmental benefits
Positive effects on the power systems: Many HVDC transmissions have been built
to interconnect different power systems by overhead lines or cables. By means of these links the existing generating plants in the networks more effectively so that the building of new power stations can be deferred. This makes economic sense, but it is also good for the environment. There is an obvious environmental benefit by not having to build a new power station, but there are even greater environmental gains in the operation of the interconnected power system by using the available generating plants more efficiently. The greatest environmental benefit is obtained by linking a system, which has much hydro generation to a system with predominantly thermal generation. This has the benefit of saving thermal generation ( predominately at peak demand ) by hydro generation. Also the thermal generation can be run more efficiently at constant output and does not have to follow the load variations. This can be done easily with the hydro generation.
A DC line can carry more power than an AC line of the same size.
The figure above compares two 3,000 MW HVDC lines (for the Three Gorges Shanghai transmission, China) to five 500 kV AC lines that would have been used if AC transmission had been selected
HVDC technology.
The conceptual design of the classic HVDC converter stations of today dates back from the mid 1970's, when thyristor valves were taking over in place of the mercury arc valves. But there has been a dramatic development in the performance of HVDC equipment and systems.
A HVDC converter station uses thyristor valves to perform the conversion from AC to DC and vice versa. The valves are normally arranged as a 12-pulse converter. The valves are connected to the AC system by means of converter transformers. The valves are normally placed in a building and the converter transformers are located just outside. The 12-pulse HVDC converter produces current harmonics (11th, 13th, 23rd, 25th, 35th, 37th etc.) on the AC side. These harmonics are prevented from entering into the connected AC network by AC filters, i.e. resonant circuits comprising capacitors, inductances (reactors) and resistors. The filters also produce a part of the reactive power consumed by the converter. The HVDC converter also gives rise to voltage harmonics on the DC side (12th, 24th, 36th etc.). A large inductance (smoothing reactor) is always installed on the DC side to reduce the ripple in the direct current. In addition, a DC filter is also normally needed to reduce the level of harmonic currents in the DC overhead line. The harmonics may otherwise cause interference to telephone circuits in the vicinity of the DC line.
The power transmitted over the HVDC transmission is controlled by means of a control system. It adjusts the triggering instants of the thyristor valves to obtain the desired combination of voltage and current in the DC system.
Several other apparatus are needed in a converter station, such as circuit breakers, current and voltage transducers, surge arresters, etc. The conceptual design of the classic HVDC converter stations remained unchanged until 1995, when ABB introduced HVDC with Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC).
Since bipolar faults are very rare, one can regard a HVDC bipole as being equivalent to a double circuit AC line from the reliability point of view.
B. Maintenance & Spares. Modern HVDC converter stations require little maintenance. Most HVDC stations schedule an annual maintenance period at a time when the utilization of the transmission is low. For a bipolar link, one pole can be serviced while the other pole is live. Maintenance can also be performed on redundant equipment, such as ABBs MACH 2TM , when the link is in full operation.
The majority of equipment in a converter station is normal high-voltage and low-voltage equipment ( breakers, disconnectors, transformers, capacitors, reactors, low-voltage power distribution and motor control systems, etc) that require normal service.
To further reduce the scheduled, and forced, outage time a facility for Remote Fault Tracing and Maintenance is included where the station can be monitored from virtually any remote location.
PLC interference If power line carrier communications (in the range from 20 - 40 kHz up to about 200 kHz) are used in the AC grid (or on the DC line) high frequency noise from the HVDC converter might cause interference. To prevent this, a PLC filter can be installed.
Radio interference (RI) High frequency noise from the HVDC converter might also cause radio interference in the AM bands (150 kHz - 30 MHz) in the vicinity of the converter station. FM radio, TV and mobile phones occupy higher frequencies and are not disturbed. The way to avoid radio interference is proper screening of the valve buildings (or outdoor valves). In addition small RI-filters are normally provided that take care of the RI noise that escape from the building via the AC and DC bushings.
Audible noise The audible noise that a HVDC converter station emits to the surroundings comes mainly from the converter transformers, the valve cooling fans, the smoothing reactors and the AC and DC filters. There are a number of methods to mitigate the noise: 1) orient disturbing equipment away from the most sensitive sound direction, 2) use of low noise level equipment, 3) screening or enclosing equipment .
DC cable faults Cable faults are very rare. They are as a rule caused by mechanical damage. Therefore submarine DC cables are often buried (except in deep waters) to prevent damage from anchors and trawls. The same protection action occurs as for a DC line but without the restart attempt. AC network faults When a temporary fault occurs in the AC system connected to the rectifier, the HVDC transmission may suffer a power loss. Even in the case of close single-phase faults, the link may transmit up to 30 % of the pre-fault power. As soon as the fault is cleared, power is restored to the pre-fault value. When a fault occurs in the AC system connected to the inverter, a commutation failure can occur interrupting power flow. If the AC-fault is temporary the power is restored as soon as the fault is cleared. A distant fault with little effect on the converter station voltage (< 10 percent) does not normally lead to a commutation failure. A CCC (Capacitor Commutated Converter) HVDC converter can tolerate about twice this voltage drop before there is a risk of commutation failure.
Converter station faults HVDC converter stations are provided with an elaborate protection system that is designed to detect fault conditions or other abnormal conditions that might expose equipment to hazard and/or cause unacceptable disturbances. The faulty equipment is taken out of service by the protection system.
Back-to-back converters are used to connect two AC systems with different frequencies as in Japan or two regions where AC is not synchronized as in the US.
Zaire could produce 250500 billion kWh of hydroelectricity annually to send to Europe (5-6,000 km) on a 30-60,000 MW link. Hydroelectric projects on a similar scale have been proposed for Canada, China and Brazil.
AC harmonic filter area at Talcher Converter transformers of one pole at Talcher, in front of the valve hall.
Rihand HVDC station, India Rihand HVDC station, Valve Hall interior, India