CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS:

Learning Outcomes :

ORGANELLES

Component in the cytoplasm which perform specific functions Numbers of organelle differ in each cell depending on the function of the cell

ORGANELLES
BOUNDED BY DOUBLE MEMBRANE NUCLEUS BOUNDED BY SINGLE MEMBRANE LYSOSOME GOLGI APPARATUS RER CHLOROPLAST SER VACUOLES NOT BOUNDED BY MEMBRANE CENTRIOLE

MITOCHONDRION

RIBOSOMES

NUCLEUS

NUCLEUS

Diameter 4 - 10m Surrounded by double membrane Outer membrane Inner membrane Nuclear envelope perforated by numerous pore Nucleoplasm - contains chromatin, nucleolus, nucleotides, enzymes & mineral ions

7/7/2012

SB017/CHAP 2 /JJ

NUCLEOLUS

Nucleolus Rounded darkly stained inside the nucleus Each cell has one @ more
rRNA

needed in the synthesis of ribosomes

7/7/2012

SB017/CHAP 2 /JJ

CHROMATIN
consist

of long DNA strand coiled around histone protein during cell division forming chromosomes

condense

7/7/2012

SB017/KMP

7/7/2012

SB017/CHAP 2 /JJ

FUNCTIONS

Chromosomes contain the genetic material of the cell

Nucleus act as the centre to control cell activities & cell division Production of ribosomes rRNA + protein ; occur in nucleus (nucleolus) Production of mRNA occur in nucleus
Protein

& enzyme synthesis needs ribosomes & mRNA

7/7/2012 SB017/CHAP 2 /JJ

10

RIBOSOMES

Small ,dense granules

Diameter + 20 nm Not bounded by membrane

Found attached to rough ER OR occur freely in cytoplasm Made up of rRNA + protein synthesized in the nucleolus

Ribosomes

There 2 types of ribosomes:

S Found in the prokaryotic cells , mitochondria & chloroplast 80 S Found in the eukaryotic cells
70

Each type consist of 2 subunits :

Small

subunit Large subunit

FUNCTIONS

Site of proteins synthesis

Contain binding site for mRNA and tRNA molecules

Ribosomes on rough ER protein transported to Golgi apparatus modified into hormones/digestive enzyme(secretory proteins) Free ribosomes in the cytoplasm scattered throughout the cytoplasm synthesize proteins for intracellular use e.g : enzyme that catalyzed metabolic processes in cytosol

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

Fills the cell , divided into compartments, channelling the passage of molecules through the interior of the cell & providing surfaces for the synthesis of lipids and some proteins. Consist of nucleus ,endoplasmic reticulum(ER) , Golgi apparatus & lysosomes
ER

manufacturers membranes & participates in protein & lipid synthesis Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and ships cell products are digestive compartments

The

Lysosomes

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

A membranous system which is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane & scattered extensively in the cell Forms an intracellular transport system & a cytoplasmic skeleton 2 types of ER Rough ER Smooth ER

ROUGH ER

Interconnected system of membrane bound flattened sacs called cisternae. Continuous with the outer membrane of nucleus Has many ribosomes on the outer surface of its membrane

Abundant in cells rapidly growing or secretory cells e.g. pancreatic cells

FUNCTIONS ROUGH ER

The rough ER involved in intracellular transport of proteins

Polypeptide

chains synthesized by ribosomes are modified to form glycoproteins & transported in the rough ER vesicles containing modified proteins are budded from rough ER & are transported to the Golgi apparatus

Transport

SMOOTH ER

Interconnected system of membrane bound tubule called cisternae. Lack ribosomes Abundant in cells: Involved in lipid and steroid hormone synthesis e.g cells in the testes and ovaries or Cells involved in detoxification e.g liver cells

FUNCTIONS SMOOTH ER

The smooth ER is the site of lipid synthesis (triglycerides, phospholipids , cholesterol & steroid hormones ) and the metabolism of carbohydrates.
Smooth

ER in liver cells are involved in detoxification e.g drugs & alcohol

GOLGI APPARATUS

GOLGI APPARATUS

Consist of a stack of flattened , membranebound sacs called cisternae

Each stack contains about 4 7 cisternae

GOLGI APPARATUS

Cis end Convex shape near the ER Trans end Concave shape cisternae nearer the cell surface The cis side, receives material by fusing with vesicles, while the other side, the trans side, buds off vesicles that travel to other sites.

FUNCTIONS

In the collection , packaging & distribution of molecules synthesized at one place in the cell and utilized at another location in the cell.
Proteins & lipids manufactured on the rough & in the smooth ER membranes are transported into the Golgi apparatus and modified as they pass through it.

FUNCTIONS

The most common alteration: Addition of short sugar chain forming: Glycoprotein when sugar are complexed to protein Glycolipid when sugar are bound to lipid Formation of lysosomes Fusion with the cell surface membrane maintain the membrane Produce secretory vesicles E.g : Zymogen , hormones ,neurotransmitter

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

LYSOSOME

Produced by the Golgi apparatus Are also components of the endomembrane system Spherical sac

Small (0.2 0.5m)

Found in most eukaryotic cells E.g : phagocytic cells ( macrophage,neutrofils)

LYSOSOMES
Covered

by a single membrane The membrane resistant to digestion & prevents the release of enzymes which would destroy the cell contents.

Contain

a high concentration of hidrolytic enzymes involved in intracelullar digestion . e.g : ribonuclease (RNAase), protease,lipase,phosphatase Function at an acidic environment

FUNCTIONS
Digestion of particles (eg:pathogen,food) Autophagy Autolysis

Lysosome

DIGESTION OF PARTICLES (eg: Food / pathogen )

Primary lysosome fuses with the vacoule Forming secondary lysosomes Hydrolytic enzymes are released Breaking down the food/pathogen into smaller particles ( digestion) Absorption of useful product / undigested particles exocytosis

AUTOPHAGY
Worn out organelles( e.g mitochondrion) surrounded by membrane forming autophagosome Primary lysosomes fuses with autophagosome Forming secondary lysosomes Hydrolytic enzymes are released Digestion of the organelles Absorption of useful product / undigested particles -exocytosis

AUTOLYSIS
Old /damaged cells Primary lysosomes fuses with the cells Forming secondary lysosomes Hydrolytic enzymes are released Digestion of the of cells Absorption of useful product / undigested particles -exocytosis

e.g: Autolysis Metamorphosis

Tadpole tails /larval tissues Primary lysosomes fuses with the tissues Forming secondary lysosomes Hydrolytic enzymes are released Digestion of the tadpole tails(frog) @ larval tissues(butterfly) Absorption of useful product / undigested particles -exocytosis

MITOCHONDRIA

MITOCHONDRIA
Rod shape;length + 2.5 - 5m ;diameter of 1m Bounded by 2 membrane:

Outer membrane

Smooth

Inner membrane

Extensively infolded to form cristae Increase surface area stalked particles store enzyme for cell respiration

MITOCHONDRIA

Intermembrane between the two membrane

The inner membrane, encloses fluid filled matrix , which contain a few circular strands of DNA , ribosomes & enzymes.
Abundant in cells which are metabolically active
e.g skeletal muscle cells, spermatozoa, liver &

pancreatic cells

FUNCTIONS

Sites of cellular aerobic respiration

The matrix contains enzymes of the Krebs cycles Cristae increase the surface area for the electron

transport chain reactions

DNA in the mitochondria enables the mitochondria to replicate during cell division

VACUOLE

A vacuole is a membrane organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal and bacterial cells. Enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including various enzymes in solution. In certain cases they may contain solids which have been engulfed. Are formed by the fusion of multiple membrane vesicles (phagocytosis)

VACUOLE : STRUCTURE & FUNCTION membrane bound sacs with varied functions. Food vacuoles @ phagosomes formed by engulfing food particles Contractile vacuoles found in freshwater protists (e.g. Paramecium, algae) pump excess water out of the cells

VACUOLE : STRUCTURE & FUNCTION

Central vacuoles
found

in many mature plant cells surrounded by the membrane, tonoplast the tonoplast is selective in its transport of solutes into the central vacuole Function : store water, nutrient, waste

CHLOROPLAST

CHLOROPLAST

Chloroplasts measure about 2 microns x 5 microns Biconcave dics

Found in leaves and other green structures of plants and in eukaryotic algae.

CHLOROPLAST

Bounded by 2 membrane:
Outer Inner

membrane
membrane

Inside the innermost membrane is a fluid-filled space, the stroma, in which float membranous sacs, the thylakoids.
The

stroma contains DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes for part of photosynthesis. thylakoids, flattened sacs, are stacked into grana and are critical for converting light to chemical energy.

The

FUNCTIONS

Site of photosynthesis

CENTRIOLES

Found in animal cells and lower plants Triplet 9+0 arrangement of microtubules Paired cylinders Centrosome region surrounding centrioles Functions : Organizers of spindle; involved in cell divisions

VESICLE

They are a sac surrounded by a single membrane.

STRUCTURE
Vesicles have a simple structure. They are a liquid filled sac surrounded by a single membrane. Some vesicles are formed by pinching off the Golgi apparatus.

FUNCTION
To package liquids containing a wide variety of

substances and carry these materials to other parts of the cell or to the outside of the cell.

VESICLE

CYTOSKELETON

The cytoskeleton is unique to eukaryotic cells. It is a dynamic threedimensional structure that fills the cytoplasm. Function : Maintain the shape of the cell Fix organelle Animal cells movement

CYTOSKELETON

The long fibers of the cytoskeleton are polymers of subunits.

The primary types of fibers comprising the cytoskeleton are:
Microfilaments

fine, thread-like protein fibers, 3-6 nm in diameter cylindrical tubes, 20-25 nm in diameter.

Microtubules

Intermediate

filaments

Ranging in size from 8-12nm

CYTOSKELETON

INTERCELLULAR JUNCTION
A specialized region of connection between two cells. Types : Plasmodesmata Tight junction Gap junction Desmosome

INTERCELLULAR JUNCTION

PLASMODESMATA

Small channels ,connect the cytoplasm of neighboring plant cells to each other Penetrate both the primary and secondary cell walls Allow certain molecules to pass directly from one cell to another and are important in cellular communication.

TIGHT JUNCTION

A series of fusions of the junctional membrane, forming a continuous seal Serves as a selective barrier to small molecules and as a total barrier to large molecules. Also known as impermeable junction; occluding junction; zonula occludens.

GAP JUNCTION

Protein channels in cell membranes that allows ions and small molecules to pass between adjacent cells. Consist of two connexons. One connexon resides in the membrane of one cell. It aligns and joins the connexon of the neighboring cell, forming a continuous aqueous pathway by which ions and small molecules can freely pass (passively) from one cell to the other.

DESMOSOME

A circular, dense body that forms the site of attachment between certain epithelial cells, especially those of stratified epithelium of the epidermis, which consist of local differentiations of the apposing cell membranes.

CELL/PLASMA MEMBRANE
STRUCTURE & FUNCTION -FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

CELL/PLASMA MEMBRANE

The cell/plasma membrane separates the living cell from its nonliving surroundings.

This thin barrier, 8 nm thick, controls traffic into and out of the cell. In 1972, S.J. Singer and G. Nicolson propose Fluid Mosaic Model

FUNCTION OF CELL MEMBRANE

Separate

living cell from its non living surrounding

permeable; regulate substance in or out of the cell

Selective

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

Fluid because the protein and phospholipid can move laterally within the membrane

Membrane protein embedded partially or wholly in the phospholipid bilayer form a mosaic pattern Cell membrane is DYNAMIC

COMPONENTS OF THE CELL/PLASMA MEMBRANE (FLUID MOSAIC MODEL)

Phospholipid

bilayer
Proteins

Cell

Peripheral proteins Integral proteins

Surface Marker Glycoprotein Glycolipid

Protein carriers Protein channels

Cholesterol

Protein receptors

PHOSPHOLIPIDS BILAYER

Phospholipids and most other membrane constituents are amphipathic molecules.

Amphipathic

molecules have both hydrophobic regions and hydrophilic regions. Hydrophobic regions attracted to water Hydrophilic regions repelled by water

Function :

PROTEINS (FLUID MOSAIC MODEL)

Proteins determine most of the membranes specific functions.

There are two populations of membrane proteins:

INTEGRAL

PROTEIN PROTEIN

PERIPHERAL

INTEGRAL PROTEIN (FLUID MOSAIC MODEL)

Embedded into the lipid bilayer. Nonpolar segments ( hydrophobic region) in contact with the nonpolar interior of the bilayer. Polar portions (hydrophillic region) protruding out from the membrane surface (contact with the aqueous environment)

INTEGRAL PROTEIN (FLUID MOSAIC MODEL)

Consist of 3 types of transmembrane proteins:

Carriers

active & passive transport of molecules across membrane eg:Facilitated diffusion passively transport molecules across
membrane eg:simple diffusion

Channels-

Receptor

transmit information into cell eg:chemical messages

PERIPHERAL PROTEINS (FLUID MOSAIC MODEL)

Not

embedded in the lipid bilayer bounded to the surface of the

Loosely

protein
Receptor

transmit information into cell via chemical messages

converting extracellular signal into cellular response

CELL MEMBRANE (PROTEIN)

FUNCTION: Transport protein Enzymatic activity Signal transduction Intercellular joining Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM)

TRANSPORT
(a) provides a hydrophilic channel
across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute

(b) hydrolyzes ATP

(source of energy) to pump substances across the membrane

ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY
Its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution
enables substrates to attach and reaction occurs

SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION

Binding site with shape that fits the shape of chemical messenger, e.g. hormones

INTERCELLULAR JOINING
Membrane

protein of adjacent cell may hooked together E.g : intensinal epithelial cell

ATTACHMENT TO CYTOSKELETON & ECM

Attach to ECM : coordinate extra and intracellular changes

Attach to cytoskeleton : help maintain cell shape & fix location of certain protein membrane

CELL SURFACE MARKERS

Cells

recognize other cells by keying on surface molecules, often carbohydrates, on the plasma membrane. Membrane carbohydrates are usually branched oligosaccharides with fewer than 15 sugar units. may be covalently bonded either to lipids, forming glycolipids, or, more commonly, to proteins, forming glycoproteins.

They

CELL SURFACE MARKERS

FUNCTION: Glycolipid Blood Group

A,B,AB, O blood group marker antigen A,B,AB,O e.g : Individuals with group A blood have red blood cells with antigen A on their surface

Glycoprotein Self-recognition in Immune System

MHC protein recognized by immune system e.g : molecules of the major histocompatibility complex (or MHC), which are expressed on the surface of cells and interact with T-cells as part of the adaptive immune response.

glycoprotein

cholesterol

CHOLESTEROL

Wedged between phospholipid molecules in the plasma membrane of animals cells.

FUNCTION : At warm temperatures, it restrains the movement of phospholipids and reduces fluidity.

At cool temperatures, it maintains fluidity by preventing tight packing.

CELL WALLS IN PLANTS

PRIMARY CELL WALL SECONDARY CELL WALL

STRUCTURE OF CELL WALL

86

7/7/2012

SB017/CHAP 2 /JJ

CELL WALL (PRIMARY WALL )

Primary cell wall is laid down during cell

division
contain

microfibrils ,made up of the polysaccharides cellulose.

Freely permeable to water and solutes Cellulose

prevent the plant cells from bursting when water enters by osmosis
7/7/2012 SB017/CHAP 2 /JJ

87

PRIMARY WALL

88

7/7/2012

SB017/CHAP 2 /JJ

CELL WALL(SECONDARY WALL)

Secondary cell wall are secreted on the inside surface of the primary wall
Cellulose microfibril are more compact
Have additional thickening such as lignin ,

suberin & cutin

89

7/7/2012

SB017/CHAP 2 /JJ

FUNCTIONS

Cell protection and support