Human Factors in Engineering & Design

References:
Human Factors in Engineering & Design: Sanders & McCormick Human Factors Essentials : Peggy & Barry Tillman Introduction to Ergonomics: R S Bridges Fundamentals of Industrial Ergonomics: B Mustafa Pulat

Chapter I : TOPICS
Evolution of Human Factors Introduction & Definitions Assumptions & Significance Applications Man-Machine-Environment Interaction System, Types & Characteristics Systems Approach to Human Factors

Evolution of Human Factors

Why ? System failures during & after World War II Fatality & Casualties Human element taken for granted Military to Industrial: Theory & data developed for military adopted for industrial sector

Human Factors: Neglect

Human beings taken for granted for their efficiencies or inefficiencies Only after significant damage, corrective measures initiated

Solution: Human Factors is the process of designing for human use : Child Car Safety Seat

Cavemen in the Space Age; How to Design Systems for Humans

Stone-Age People in the Jet Age

Punch line: Keep things very clear

HUMAN FACTORS: Profession

Ensures equipment systems easy & safe to operate HF Researcher: Gathers data & analyzes (on work, human capabilities & limitations) HF Engineer: Work with designers to ensure people operate & maintain system HF Professional: Ensures totality to the product generated through improvements

Definitions
Websters:
An applied science concerned with characteristics of people that need to be considered in designing and arranging things that they use in order that people & things will interact most effectively and safely.

Psychologists:
HF is the body of knowledge about human abilities, human limitations & other human characteristics that are relevant to design.

Definitions (Contd.)
Polish Educator on Ergonomics:
Ergon = Work ; Nomos = Laws
Laws governing work

General definition:
HF is the study of the interactions between human beings & objects they use and the environment in which they function

Definitions (Contd.) : Sanders & McCormick

3 branched approach:

The Central focus: Consideration of human beings in the design of objects, machinery & environments.
The Objectives: Increase the effectiveness of ManMachine system while maintaining human wellbeing. The Central Approach: Systematic application of available data on human characteristic to design of system / procedures.

Definition: Sanders & McCormick

COMFORT

ERGONOMICS

WELL-BEING

EFFICIENCY: Physical, Mental, Production

Human Factors Research V/s Application

Research (Factors) HF Application (Applied HF)

Scientific Research of Human Characteristics : Factors

Application of HF data to design : Applied Ergonomics

Science Combining Research & Application of Human data: Through HF Experts, Resources, Tools & principles to improve design

Example: NASA standards for nutritional meals for space dwellers

ASSUMPTIONS IN ERGONOMICS
Linking efficiency of person-object system - If person cannot work effectively, the system efficiency is also degraded People achieve more when motivated Objects, equipments, environment characteristics influence human performance.

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES

Data compiled in the US indicate amongst the top 10 work related diseases, ergonomic related are: Musculoskeletal (2) Amputation, fracture, eye loss, traumatic deaths (4) Cardiovascular diseases (5) Noise-induced loss of hearing (8) Psychological disorders (10)

COMPENSATION PAID INCREASING mostly due to back injuries & over exertion Training & Education helps reduce negative impact.

Organizations in Ergonomics in the US

OSHA : Occupational Safety & Health Act
(generates safety standards & inspects)

NIOSH : National Institute of Occupational Safety & Health (conducts research to support OSHA) MSHA : Mine Safety & Health Administration
(OSHAs equivalent in mining activity)

Other Professional bodies:

HFS : Human Factors Society IIE : Institute of Industrial Engineers IEA : International Ergonomics Association ILO : International Labor Organization WHO : World Health Organization

Costs of Ignoring Ergonomics

Less production output Increased lost time Higher material cost Increased absenteeism Low quality work Injuries, strains & compensation Increased probability of errors Less spare capacity for emergencies Increased labor turnover

POTENTIAL GAINS are the reverse of the above

Types of Ergonomic related Problems

Anthropometric:
Relates to the dimensional conflict between functional space geometry & the human body.

Cognitive:
Refers to the information overload or under load in information processing requirements (memory strain)

Musculoskeletal:
Refers to the strain to the muscular & skeletal systems (slipped disc)

Types of Ergonomic related Problems - Contd.

Cardiovascular:
Refers to the strain to circulatory system including the heart (increased pumping to meet excess oxygen requirement)

Psychomotor:
Refers to the strain to the psychomotor system human capabilities & redefinition of job Note: Stress under each case must be analyzed separately & remedial package suggested. Education & Training - improves / extend human capabilities, create awareness and avoid damages.

The Role of Ergonomics Specialist

All Engineers background expected to possess Ergonomic

An Organization with over 1500 employees to have a full-time HF Expert to handle complex HF problems (IIE study) Interest of study ranges vastly layouts & seating, manual material handling hand tool design to software design, Job evaluation to training.

The Role of Ergonomics Specialist (Contd.)

Interdisciplinary science experts trained in Psychology, Anthropometry, Education, Engineering, Medicine and a host of other disciplines. Prevent disasters Bhopal Gas tragedy, Belgian ferry sinking, Chernobyl incident, Air crashes and collusions Improper design of controls and non-considerations of human capabilities.

Human Factors Applications

Automobile Design:
Flexible design to suit all categories of people tall short, overweight, handicapped etc. Reduce driver fatigue, improve visibility, safety and decrease accidents.

Business Offices:
Comfortable Physical environment lighting, ventilation, noise control, layout Improve informal atmosphere

Human Factors Applications (Contd.)

Personnel Selection & Training:
Design of programs for effective selection and training activities improves performance. US Army use HF expertise to design programs for selection of crew members for combat missions, write training manuals etc. Selection process should include HF considerations.

Human Factors Applications (Contd.)

Computers: Can help design computer & software for programmers & users stores clerk eliminating manual records. Speed, color contrast & information overload Manufacturing , Assembly Plants: Robots a common feature in assembly line manufacture Activity chart, Process chart. Interaction of automated machines with humans and its harmful effects.

Human Factors Applications (Contd.)

Schools & other facilities: Design of classrooms, rest rooms, sports facilities & other special purpose areas. To consider age, physical size, capability of individual users. Facilities present & future use. New technologies. Social changes

Man-Machine-Environment Interaction
Application of Human engineering principles used in the design not exactly
science, but an approach to problems of designing & constructing things people use comfortably, efficiently and with less fatigue.

Designer not necessarily represents the user

& Everything designed for the user

A chrome touch product does not always

attract a repeat customer.

Concept of System central to HF:

System: An entity that exists to carry out a function or purpose.
Composed of man, machine and other things with which they interact.

System maybe classified as:

Physical system: Assemblage of components Theoretical system: Assemblage of concepts Biological system: Assemblage of body parts

Steps in design of System

Purpose recognition

Analyze recognition

Understand System requirement

Design System which meets requirements

Man-Machine-Environment Interaction
Functions as a closed loop system Comprising combination of human beings and components one or more each interacting to produce some desired output Machine a device that is physically verifiable or a facility with certain function Welding machine, Hair Drier. Systems less delineate or marked out & more amorphous or vague or formless like a hospital service.

Man-Machine-Environment Interaction

Man-Machine Interaction
Display Unit displays current Machine status Reception of Data - Receptors Operator Mind / Brain Analyzes information Decision making on control action

Action through Control Devices

Operational changes machine status Display unit displays revised machine status

MAN

MACHINE

Perceived Information

Displays

Information Processing

Internal & External Equipment status

Output Mechanism: Speech * Manual Control

Controls

ELEMENTS OF MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM

Environment

Film ware Input Hardware TASK Software Output

Human Operator

Feedback

ELEMENTS OF MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM (Contd.) Environment: Effect of environment on other system elements to be considered. Types of environment: Social: Task pressures, Isolation, group dynamics. Physical: Illumination, Noise, Vibration, Heat, Cold.

ELEMENTS OF MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM (Contd.) Hardware:

Elements that are physically verifiable. Are better responded to by humans
Examples: Display units, controls, equipments, dimensions, shapes, layout, chairs.

ELEMENTS OF MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM (Contd.) Software:

Helps operator identify in an adequate manner, give complete access to information in a most comfortable manner. Helps understand the hardware operating procedure.
Examples: Menu structures, Screen layout, messages, instruction manuals.

ELEMENTS OF MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM (Contd.) Film ware:

Software loaded hardware is film ware.
Identifies the degree of compatibility of the software on the hardware ease of combining or working together. Example: Labeling for proper identification.

ELEMENTS OF MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM (Contd.)

Human / Operator:
Human operator assisted with equipment carry out task. They complement one another. Human variables to be considered by designers: Age, physique, gender, training & education.

ELEMENTS OF MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM (Contd.)

Task:
Also called as System objective. Clearly defined. Central to all elements.

Human

Task

parameters

to

be

assessed:

(Assuming equipment perform properly) Speed of performance, strength requirements, accuracy requirements and task sequencing.

TYPES OR CLASSES OF SYSTEMS

Operator role in system: Acquires information, decides and acts Degree of system automation decides human coverage, degree of involvement, control & importance. E.g.: Fully automated control room operator to a cyclist cycling through a unknown terrain.

TYPES OR CLASSES OF SYSTEMS Contd.

Manual Systems: (Hand tools) Adjusts task parameters like force & pace based on information received and perceived by operator. Highly flexible. Less repeatability. Human physical energy source.

TYPES OR CLASSES OF SYSTEMS Contd. Mechanical Systems: (machine) Semi automatic systems. Power & other functions by machines. Better repeatability. Well integrated parts. Designed to operate with less vibrations. Human function essentially Controls the functions or power delivered by the m/c.

TYPES OR CLASSES OF SYSTEMS Contd.

Automated Systems: ( Robots) Operational functions with little human intervention or attention sensing, decision making & action. No human intervention a mistaken belief. Emergency analysis allow human intervention. Fully automated systems also require humans to install, program, reprogram & maintain operating condition.

Man versus Machine

Designer to: Have the user in mind. Be able to describe exactly what operator has to do for operating & maintaining the equipment. Determine if a function to be performed manually or automatic There is no easy Yes / No answer. Needs analysis of capabilities of Humans & M/cs.

Man versus Machine

Humans Excel In Machines Excel In

Wide variety of stimuli

Monitoring Man & Machine

Perceiving patterns & generalizing about them

Judgment on events that cannot be completely defined Adopting flexible procedures Analyzing & originality in problem solving

For routine, repetitive & precise operation

Quick response to signals Applying large force, smoothly and precisely

Storing & recalling large amount of info in quickly

Operate in environment hazardous to humans

Man versus Machine Contd.

Humans Excel In Machines Excel In

Profit from past experience & alter course of action Inductive reasoning

Operate in environment hazardous to humans Performance rapid and complex computation accurately

Perform even when overloaded Sensitive to stimuli beyond the range of humans
Perform different tasks at the same time Perform deductive processes

Insensitive to external factors

Characteristics of Systems
1. Systems are purposive: Exists for accomplishing goal or objective else systems would be collection of odds & ends. 2. Systems can Hierarchical: Part of a larger system, concept of sub-systems. When one analyses a complex system, one may question: Where does one start and stop? Depends How far into the system should one go? As far as one could go.

Characteristics of Systems - Contd.

3. Systems operate in Environment:
Environment of a system is everything outside its boundaries set. Depending upon how the boundaries are drawn, the environment can range from: a. Immediate environment: Office Workstation, Work Chair. b. Intermediate environment: Office, Home, Factory, School. c. General environment: Community, City, highway system, Neighborhood.

Characteristics of Systems - Contd.

Systems operate in Environment - Contd.:
Physical environment may not be cooperative or adaptable for modifications: Heater & Coolers. Peoples nature essentially passive.

To impose certain constraints on their movements or restricting the field of view.

To predetermine certain aspects of behavior: trying to see edge of road on a rainy night

Characteristics of Systems - Contd.

4. Components serve Functions: Each component or element (lowest level of analysis) to serve at least one or more system goals. Components involve combination of the following four functions: Sensing, Storing, Processing, Decision making, Action

Characteristics of Systems - Contd.

Components serve Functions:
Information Storage

Information Input

Sensing (Info. Receiving)

Info Processing & Decision

Action: Physical control Communication

System Output

Characteristics of Systems - Contd.

Sensing: Order copy for production plan. Info Storing: Tables of record, discs, tapes. Processing & Decision making: Info sensed & stored. Human: Act or not to Machine: Decision to be programmed through computer, gear arrangements, levers, circuits. Action: Consequence of decision Physical control Action: activating control devices physically, modifications of objects, materials. Communication Action: Through voice (humans) Signals, records (Eqpt.)

Characteristics of Systems - Contd.

5. Components Interact: Each component has an effect however small, on the other components. Components work together to achieve system objectives (elementary subsystems)

Characteristics of Systems - Contd.

6. Systems, Subsystems & Components have Input & Output:
Inputs to a subsystem is an output from another component / subsystem. A system receives input from environment & delivers output to the environment. Inputs may be physical, impulses or info. Open Loop: Die that is cast (unguided system) Closed Loop: continuous operation chem. process.
(Feedback & control)

Characteristics of Systems - Contd.

7. Reliability of Systems: Dependability of system (Man/Machine) on successful completion of an discrete event. Starting of a car Electronic Teller 999 / 1000 right, R=0.999 Another measure of Reliability: MTTF : Mean Time To Failure

Characteristics of Systems - Contd.

Reliability of system depends upon reliability of individual components in the system. Depends on how they combine. a. Components in Series / Sequence: Failure of one component leads to the failure of the system. Component failures are independent of one another. As more are added, the system reliability reduces. RMax.Overall = RComponent with Least RMin.Overall < RComponent with Least

Characteristics of Systems - Contd.

b. Components in Parallel: Referred to as Back up or Redundancy arrangements as one component backs up the other during failure. For system to fail all parallel components need to fail. Human functions generally to have parallel components as humans are the weak link.

SYSTEMS APPROACH
Systematic study involve covering minute aspects large details

Frequently, not possible to approach from right the beginning (some decisions already taken) Systematic Approach applicable to even minor modifications/additions to old system

General steps using Systems Approach:

requirements, constraints, environment & people using the system collected to meet stated objectives, keeping in mind economy, ease of mfg, reliability, Maintenance & servicing all factors in info & planning & proceed with the design using HF principles

Information Phase: Data about operational

Planning Phase: Explore alternate approaches

Selection Phase: Select the design optimizing

General steps using Systems Approach: (Contd.) Test Phase:

Construct models, mock ups of design to evaluate / test against stated objectives. In case of dynamic parameters, prepare simulated models Test design under actual operating conditions, utilizing actual personnel / end user

Field Test Phase:

Follow up surveys to provide feedback for design improvements.

Systems Approach to Human Engineering

Requirement & Task Analysis: It is the Info
phase Functions Eg.: System Requirements - Safe transport of goods by ship System Limitations - Ship on rivers only Operational Functions - Control of traffic, navigation, communication & supervision Task Analysis involves: Dividing functions into building blocks or tasks, skill & knowledge requirements, workplace assignment & error potential. Tasks may further be divided into sub-tasks

Systems Approach to Human Engineering

Error Analysis: Equipment malfunction, human error potential to be estimated. This is a part of Task analysis. Objective: to develop system success probability based on task/subtask success probabilities & their relationship, so that system achieves the goal with a degree of confidence.

Human tasks to be provided with certain minimal permissible errors or be made fault tolerant.

Systems Approach to Human Engineering

Time Planning: To ensure that system achieve results in the planned period of time.

Designer to review the resource (Man & M/c) allocation & its optimal use by Time planning.

Systems Approach to Human Engineering

Use of Operational Sequence Diagramming (OSD): Gives a pictorial description of system Displays functions & their elements in sequential logic Helps understand the relationship between functions Help trace the flow of info, identifying inputs & outputs Time Line Analysis: When time info is added to flow charting technique This analysis will provide the overload / under load conditions for the resources
Gantt chart, Man-M/c process chart, Precedence diagrams

Systems Approach to Human Engineering

Human resource planning: A design process is incomplete without human resource planning & implementation. Steps in Resource Planning: Developing Staffing requirements Selection Training & Development Follow-up

Systems Approach to Human Engineering

Developing Staffing requirements:
Data gathered from detailed Task analysis, identifying operators needs & skill in a quantified manner.

Selection:
Applicants should be exposed to situations of job requirement through well designed tests, only those possessing skill are to be selected, else it may lead to injury to operator or the people around.

Systems Approach to Human Engineering

Training & Development: Training for upgrading skill for adequate performance
on job, may not be for all potential personnel. Techniques of training: On the Job & Class room Applicable for lower level in hierarchy Development to improve personal traits such as Judgmental abilities, communication, leadership Applicable for higher level in hierarchy

Follow-up: Periodic follow up be carried out on personnel after actual job assignment for some time.

Systems Approach to Human Engineering

Detailed design & acquisition (Development): Involves reviewing the preliminary plans in greater detail. Taking final decisions on all steps. Includes detailing, purchase & acquisition of all necessary equipments, software's & other resources

Systems Approach to Human Engineering

Testing: Testing NOT the last step in development process. Tests are conducted throughout Planning, Preliminary & detailed design, development & acquisition & operational stages. Tests ensures that: System requirements fulfilled Defects identified & rectified early Undesirable features not introduced into design Design decisions are of quality There would be optimal interaction between people & equipment

Systems Approach to Human Engineering

Testing Techniques: Testing on all elements of system including operational relationships. Mock up tests: Static Mock up test: Cheaper technique Dimensional accuracy maintained Eg.: 2 or 3 dimensional templates, drawings, checklists, questionnaires. Functional Mock up test: Costly, use true set up Eg. Simulation, Modeling & other quantitative techniques to make strategic decisions on relative position of equipment & workstation etc.

Systems Approach to Human Engineering

Design synthesis: 1. Imperative to go back and make corrections & revisions after each step/cycle 2. Iterates between alternate methods of achieving functional system objectives till the best workable combination is obtained 3. Ensures good compatibility between requirements & expected results 4. After field operation, expect immediate positive result Initial drop in productivity or success attributed to Learning period, resistance to change and not be taken as failure of design of system

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT CYCLE

Top 1. SYSTEM PLANNING Define System requirements & Limitations ITERATE

Define Operational functions

Bottom

2. INITIAL DESIGN

TEST & REVISE

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT CYCLE

Top 2. INITIAL DESIGN Machine Tasks Function Allocation Human Tasks TEST & REVISE

ITERATE

Joint Tasks

Task Analysis

Bottom

3. DETAIL DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT CYCLE

3. DETAIL DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT Top

ITERATE

Contingency Analysis

Manpower Planning

Hardware, Software, Film ware, HR Development Bottom 4. TESTING

TEST & REVISE

Time Plans

Error Analysis

Selection & Training

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT CYCLE

4. TESTING Top TEST & REVISE TEST & REVISE

Drawings

Mock ups

Templates

Quantitative Techniques

ITERATE

5. OPERATIONAL PHASE

Field Test

Bottom

End of Chapter Questions

Select a human-object system in your environment. Analyze its constituent elements in terms of hardware, software, tasks, human, environment. Discuss each element & its relationships with other elements. Select a manual human-object system in your environment. How can it be converted first into a mechanical & then into a automated system? Select a human-object system in your environment. Detail its operational functions. Carry out a detailed analysis for one of its functions & display the results on a flowchart with allocated resources approximate estimate.