SEVEN TOOLS OF TQM

IPE 381: Measurement and Quality Control

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

It

refers to the organization wide effort to achieve quality. It extends to suppliers as well as customers. In TQM, customer is the focal point. Customer satisfaction is the main driving force. Quality is affected by the activities of all the departments in the organization.

TQM APPROACH
Find

out what customers want Design the product according to customer needs. Design a production process that facilitates doing the job right the first time. Keep track of results. Extend these concepts to suppliers and distribution.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TQM
Continual

improvement Customer focus Organization wide activity Employee empowerment Team approach Competitive benchmarking Team approach Knowledge of tools Internal and external customers

SEVEN BASIC TOOLS OF TQM

Kaoru Ishikawa contends that 95% of a company's problems can be solved using these seven tools. The tools are designed for simplicity.
Flow

Charts Ishikawa Diagrams or Cause-Effect diagram Checklists Pareto Charts Histograms Scatter diagrams Control Charts

FLOW CHARTS
A flow chart shows the steps in a process i.e., actions which transform an input to an output for the next step. This is a significant help in analyzing a process but it must reflect the actual process used rather than what the process owner thinks it is or wants it to be. The differences between the actual and the intended process are often surprising and provide many ideas for improvements. Often, non-value-added steps become obvious and eliminating these provides an easy way to improve the process.

ISHIKAWA DIAGRAMS/ CAUSE EFFECT DIAGRAMS/FISHBONE DIAGRAM

Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa, a Japanese quality control statistician, invented the fishbone diagram. Therefore, it may be referred to as the Ishikawa diagram. Their function is to identify the factors that are causing an undesired effect (e.g., defects) for improvement action. Because of the function of the fishbone diagram, it may be referred to as a cause-and-effect diagram. The design of the diagram looks much like the skeleton of a fish. Therefore, it is often referred to as the fishbone diagram.

HOW IS A FISHBONE DIAGRAM CONSTRUCTED?

This is a three step process.

Step 1
Write down the effect to be investigated and draw the 'backbone' arrow to it. In the example shown below the effect is 'Incorrect deliveries'.

HOW IS A FISHBONE DIAGRAM CONSTRUCTED?

Step 2 Identify all the broad areas of enquiry in which the causes of the effect being investigated may lie. For incorrect deliveries the diagram may then become:

For manufacturing processes, the broad areas of enquiry which are most often used are Materials (raw materials), Equipment (machines and tools), Workers (methods of work), and Inspection (measuring method).

HOW IS A FISHBONE DIAGRAM CONSTRUCTED?

Step 3 This step requires the greatest amount of work and imagination because it requires you (or you and your team) to write in all the detailed possible causes in each of the broad areas of enquiry. Each cause identified should be fully explored for further more specific causes which, in turn, contribute to them.

You continue this process of branching off into more and more directions until every possible cause has been identified. The final result will represent a sort of a 'mind dump' of all the factors relating to the effect being explored and the relationships between them.

CE diagram

CATEGORIES OF MAJOR CAUSES

The 6 Ms (used in manufacturing) Machine (technology) Method (process) Material (Includes Raw Material, Consumables and Information.) Man Power (physical work) Measurement (Inspection) Mother Nature (Environment) The original 6Ms used by the Toyota Production System have been expanded by some to included the following and are referred to as the 8Ms. Management/Money Power Maintenance

CATEGORIES OF MAJOR CAUSES

The 8 Ps (for service industry) Product=Service Price Place Promotion/Entertainment People(key person) Process Physical Evidence Productivity & Quality The 5 Ss (for service industry) Surroundings Suppliers Systems Skills Safety

TYPES OF CE DIAGRAM

Cause Enumeration

This identifies one by one all possible causes from brainstorming sessions and then classifies into groups.

Process Analysis
It follows the process step by step and causes are listed as per process step. Prior to develop a process type CE diagram, process flow chart is a must.

CHECKLIST
Checklists are a simple way of gathering data so that decisions can be based on facts, rather than anecdotal evidence. The following figure shows a checklist used to determine the causes of defects in a hypothetical assembly process. It indicates that "not-to-print" is the biggest cause of defects, and hence, a good subject for improvement. Checklist items should be selected to be mutually exclusive and to cover all reasonable categories.

CHECKLIST
An Ishikawa Diagram may be helpful in selecting factors to consider. The data gathered in a checklist can be used as input to a Pareto chart for ease of analysis. Note that the data does not directly provide solutions. Knowing that "not-to-print" is the biggest cause of defects only starts the search for the root cause of "not-to-print" situations.

PARETO CHARTS

Alfredo Pareto was an economist who noted that a few people controlled most of a nation's wealth. According to him 80% of the countrys wealth is occupied by 20% of the population. "Pareto's Law" has been applied to many other areas, including quality control, where a few causes are responsible for most of the problems.

These few(say 20%) are known as vital few and the rest many (say 80%) are known as trivial many.
These "vital few causes can be separated from the "trivial many using a diagram known as a Pareto chart. They are actually histograms aided by the 80/20 rule adapted by Joseph Juran.

Remember the 80/20 rule states that approximately 80% of the problems are created by approximately 20% of the causes.

PARETO CHART

Usually Pareto chart contains both bars and a line graph, where individual values are represented in descending order by bars, and the cumulative total is represented by the line. The left-side vertical axis of the pareto chart is labeled Frequency (the number of counts for each category), the right-side vertical axis of the pareto chart is the cumulative percentage, and the horizontal axis of the pareto chart is labeled with the group names of your response variables.

To take the example in the next slide, in order to lower the number of defects by 80%, it is sufficient to concentrate and analyze the causes of defects in the first three workstations.

STRATIFICATION ANALYSIS
Stratification is a technique used in combination with other data analysis tools. When data from a variety of sources or categories have been lumped together, the meaning of the data can be impossible to see. This technique separates the data so that patterns can be seen. When to Use Stratification

Before collecting data. When data come from several sources or conditions, such as shifts, days of the week, suppliers or population groups. When data analysis may require separating different sources or conditions.

STRATIFICATION ANALYSIS (CONTD)

For example, the following figure plots defects against three possible sets of potential causes. The figure shows that there is no significant difference in defects between production lines or shifts, but product type three has significantly more defects than do the others. Finding the reason for this difference in number of defects could be worthwhile.

STRATIFICATION ANALYSIS (CONTD)

The ZZ400 manufacturing team drew a scatter diagram to test whether product purity and iron contamination were related, but the plot did not demonstrate a relationship. Then a team member realized that the data came from three different reactors. The team member redrew the diagram, using a different symbol for each reactors data: Now patterns can be seen. The data from reactor 2 and reactor 3 are circled. Even without doing any calculations, it is clear that for those two reactors, purity decreases as iron increases. However, the data from reactor 1, the solid dots that are not circled, do not show that relationship. Something is different about reactor 1.

HISTOGRAM
Histograms are another form of bar chart in which measurements are grouped into bins; in this case each bin representing a range of values of some parameter. The histogram graphically shows the following: center (i.e., the location) of the data; spread (i.e., the scale) of the data; skewness of the data; presence of outliers; and presence of multiple modes in the data.

VARIOUS SHAPES OF HISTOGRAM

SCATTER DIAGRAMS
Scatter diagrams are a graphical, rather than statistical, means of examining whether or not two parameters are related to each other. It is simply the plotting of each point of data on a chart with one parameter as the x-axis and the other as the yaxis. If the points form a narrow "cloud the parameters are closely related and one may be used as a predictor of the other. A wide "cloud" indicates poor correlation.

Vertical axis: variable Y--usually the response variable Horizontal axis: variable X--usually some variable we suspect may be related to the response

No Relationship This plot shows that there is lack of predictability in determining Y from a given value of X and thus the associated amorphous, nonstructured appearance of the scatter plot leads to the conclusion: no relationship. Strong Positive Linear Correlation The slope of the line is positive (small values of X correspond to small values of Y; large values of X correspond to large values of Y), so there is a positive co-relation between X and Y.

Strong Negative Correlation The scatter about the line is quite small, so there is a strong linear relationship. The slope of the line is negative i.e. small values of X correspond to large values of Y; large values of X correspond to small values of Y, so there is a negative corelation between X and Y. Exact Linear Relationship The scatter about the line is zero-there is perfect predictability between X and Y

Quadratic Relationship In order to describe the relationship between X and Y--a curved (or curvilinear, or non-linear) function is needed. The simplest such curvilinear function is a quadratic model Exponential Relationship In this example, the large values of X correspond to nearly constant values of Y, and so a non-linear function beyond the quadratic is needed. Among the many other non-linear functions available, one of the simpler ones is the exponential model

Sinusoidal Relationship This scatter plot reveals that the amount of swing does not appear to be constant but rather is decreasing (damping) as X gets large.

PROCEDURE OF CONSTRUCTION

Divide points in the graph into four quadrants. Count x/2 points from top to bottom and draw a horizontal line. Count x/2 points from left to right and draw a vertical line. If number of points is odd, draw the line through the middle point. Count the point in each quadrants. Do not count the points on a line. Add diagonally opposite points. A= points in upper left+ points in lower right B= points in upper right+ points in lower left Q= smaller of A and B N=A+B Look N on the correlation test table If Q < limit, then two variables are related.

CONTROL CHARTS
The charts are made by plotting in sequence the measured values of samples taken from a process. For example, the mean length of a sample of rods from a production line, the number of defects in a sample of a product, the miles per gallon of automobiles tested sequentially in a model year, etc. These measurements are expected to vary randomly about some mean with a known variance. From the mean and variance, control limits can be established. Control limits are values that sample measurements are not expected to exceed unless some special cause changes the process.

A sample measurement outside the control limits therefore indicates that the process is no longer stable, and is usually reason for corrective action. Other causes for corrective action are non-random behavior of the measurements within the control limits. Control limits are established by statistical methods depending on whether the measurements are of a parameter, attribute or rate.