HUMAN LEARNING

COMPLEX
COGNITIVE
PROCESSES
COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Concept
Formation
Theories of
Concept
Formation
Methods To
Promote
Concept
Formation
Misconceptions
Methods To
Promote
Conceptual
Change
Complex Cognitive Processes
using or transforming previously
acquired knowledge and skills.

to promote students understanding,
application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation skills.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy Bloom's Taxonomy
Knowledge
Type
Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Factual
Conceptual
Procedural
Metacognitive
CONCEPT FORMATION
Concept :

A category used to group similar objects,
events, ideas or people.
Help us represent and organize large
amounts of information.
Aid the process remembering, making it
more efficient.

THEORIES
OF
CONCEPT
FORMATION
RULE THEORY

PROTOTYPE
THEORY
EXEMPLAR
THEORY
RULE THEORY
= Student used different
strategies to discover concept :-
= Gambling strategies
= Conservatives focusing
strategies
= Defining Features :
the set of attributes that are
necessary and sufficient to
define a concept.
Limitation :-

i. can only explain how simple,
unambiguous concepts are formed.
ii. doesnt explain how people from
fuzzier or abstract concepts which a
set may not be adequate.

PROTOTYPE THEORY
=The best representation of a certain
category or class.
=People construct mental prototypes as
they experience the world.
=The majority of real-word concepts are
structured by typical attributes rather
than by rules.
EXEMPLAR THEORY
=Highly typical examples of a category or
class.
=Real examples experienced by
individuals.
=Explains how people form ambiguous or
abstract concepts.
Methods to Promote Concept
Formation
Prototype theory :
wchildren should first learn concepts by having
adults show examples that are typical.
Rule Theory :
when example are not typical or ambiguous,
examine the concepts defining attributes.
Exemplar theory :
wto ask students to retrieve exemplars from
their memory.
2 additional methods to facilitate concept
formation :
i. Schema Activation
Consists of any instructional activity where
learners are primed to activate prior
knowledge from their long-term memory
i. Analogical reasoning
using example that are familiar to students
and that share similar attributes with the
new concept to be learned.
Guidelines for Teaching New
Concepts
1. Activate students schemas on related concepts or
exemplars of the concept.
2. Present students with multiple examples and non
examples.
3. Help students identify defining and non defining
attributes of the concept.
4. Teach students the name of the concept.
5. Give students a good definition
6. Add visual aids.
7. Have students make analogies between the new
concept and another known concept.
Concept Attainment Model
Students discover the concept
Teacher writes the titles Examples and Non-
Examples.
Students develop hypotheses based on the
examples and non-examples.
3 stages:
1. Presenting examples and non-examples so that
students can infer the concept to be learned.
2. Checking to see if students have understood the
concept
3. Having students analyze their thinking
strategies- namely, how they generated the
different hypotheses about the attributes.


Concept Maps
Visualization and organization technique
that consists of constructing maps
representing the relationship among
concepts.
Helping students organize the new
information with their prior knowledge.
Misconception
=Invalid concepts that students construct using their
experiences, expectations, beliefs and emotions.
=Nave theories : theories that develop without
instruction or with very little guidance from more
knowledgeable others.
=Undergeneralization :-
Students have a concept that is too narrow
because it fails to include relevant objects and
events.
=Overgeneralization :-
Students have a concept that is too wide because
it includes irrelevant objects or events.

KAEDAH /CARA MENGGALAKAN PERUBAHAN
KONSEP(METHODS TO PROMOTE CONCEPTUAL
CHANGE)
APAKAH ITU PERUBAHAN KONSEP

Maksud proses mengubah salah tanggapan
yang memerlukan pertukaran cara pemikiran
yang sedia ada.
PERUBAHAN KONSEP
KAEDAH /CARA MENGGALAKKAN
PERUBAHAN KONSEP

Berikut adalah kaedah-kaedah yang dicadangkan oleh Chinn &
Brewer,1998; Posner Strike, Hewson, & Gertzon 1982; Thorley &
Stofflet, 1996:-

- Pelajar mesti mempunyai pengalaman konflik kognitif di antara konsep
sedia ada.
Pelajar sedar dengan teori naif mereka.
Ada pengalaman konflik di antara konsep yang sedia & konsep baharu.

- Setiap konsep yang baharu mestilah boleh di terima akal.
Penggunaan proses kognitif yang akan membawa ke arah pengekodan
bermakna.contoh:- Penerangan, orgnisasi dan visualisasi.

- Konsep yang baharu itu mestilah berguna dalam menyatakan masalah
baharu atau situasi.
Mempersiapkan pelajar dengan memberikan peluang untuk menggunakan
maklumat baharu untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang baharu.

HYPHOTESIS EXPERIMENT
INSTRUCTION(HEI MODEL)
Effectively enggages students in conceptual change process
by creating social environment that favors deliberate and
intentional belief revision (Hatano & Inagaki,
1991,2000,2003).
It consists of :-
i) Presenting students with multiple choice problem with
conflicting alternatives during a whole-class discussion.
ii) Students then make independent choices about which
alternative they consider correct.
iii) Theacher arrange small groups that are representive of each
hypothesis(hypothesis phase).


Continue..
iv) Students hypothesis are tested by conducting or observing
an experiment.
v) After arguing for their positions, student are asked to vote
again (they may change their original hypothesis).
v) Finally, students discuss the reasons that caused them to
hold on to or to let go of their original hypothesis, and the
teacher reveals the correct alternative.
Accommodate the
concept.
-Students accommodate a new
view, concept or skill by
summarizing, discussing, debating
& incorporating new information.
Extend the
concept
- Students apply and
make new
connections between
the new concepts /
skill & other
situations & ideas.
Go Beyond
- Students pose
and pursue new
questions, ideas,
& problems of
their own.




Proses penggunaan minda untuk mencari makna dan
pemahaman terhadap sesuatu, meneroka pelbagai
kemungkinan idea, membuat keputusan atau
menyelesaikan masalah dan seterusnya membuat
refleksi terhadap proses pemikiran yang dialami.

APAKAH ITU BERFIKIR?
(WHAT IS THINKING?)
BERFIKIR
PROSES BERFIKIR
MINDA
SOALAN PROSES JAWAPAN
1.Apa yang kita
tahu(pengetahuan)
2. Menyoal
sendiri(kemahiran
Kognitif)
3. Menilai baik
buruknya. (Sikap
atau Nilai)

Satu proses menggunakan fakta, pengetahuan
dan strategi penyelesaian masalah untuk
menghasilkan kesimpulan bagi menyelesaikan
masalah dan membuat keputusan.
Penaakulan terbahagi kepada dua:-
i) Penaakulan Deduktif
ii) Penaakulan Induktif
Penghasilan maklumat baharu daripada maklumat yang
telah diketahui.
Jenis pemikiran ini bermula daripada generalisasi atau
kesimpulan umum dan menuju kepada contoh-contoh
yang spesifik.
Contoh:-
Premis:- Hari Hujan rumput basah.
Fakta:- Rumput Basah
Rumus:- Hari Hujan
Satu bentuk penaakulan yang bermula dengan contoh-
contoh yang khusus dan menuju kepada sesuatu
kesimpulan umum.
Menghasilkan rumus baru daripada set fakta yang
terhad(membuat generalisasi).
Contoh:-
Fakta 1:- Ali suka makan roti
Fakta 2:- Ah Chong suka makan roti
Fakta 3:- Maniam suka makan roti
Rumus:- Semua orang suka makan roti

+ Membentuk generalisasi (proses menggunakan logik) yang
dipercayai merujuk kepada semua kes untuk jenis tertentu.


PENAAKULAN INDUKTIF
MEMBUAT KEPUTUSAN
(DECISION MAKING)
O Maksud membuat keputusan:-
Satu proses menilai pilihan yang ada dan membuat
keputusan yang terbaik tentang sesuatu masalah
berdasarkan rancangan,peraturan atau model yang
ditetap.
O Satu penyelidikan klasik mendapati mendapati bahawa
guru membuat keputusan sebanyak lebih kurang 800
keputusan sehari (Jackson 1968)
O Malahan ketika memberi jawapan kepada pelajar,
memerlukan membuat keputusan terlebih dahulu,
bagaimana cara menjawab soalan yang diberikan.

PROSES MEMBUAT KEPUTUSAN

1.Mengenal
pasti masalah
2.Menganalisis
masalah dan
kehendak
3.Mencipta
alternatif
penyelesaian
4.Memilih
penyelesaian
terbaik
5.Membuat
keputusan yang
cemerlang
THINKING FLAWS
Confirmation Bias.
The tendency to look for information that confirms rather
that refutes our thoughts( Gavetti & Rivkin,2005)
Hindsight Bias.
The tendency to falsely report that we accurately
predicted an event once they events occurs ( Birch, 2005 )
Overconfidence Bias
The tendency to be more optimistic about alternatives than
we would be if we had considered probabilities/ past
experience ( Kahnemen & Tversky, 1995)
Belief Perseverance
The tendency to hold on to a belief despite the presence of
contradictory evidence ( Smith, 2005)
Creative thinking and Creativity
(pemikiran kreatif dan kreativiti)
+ Kreativiti adalah kebolehan minda berimaginasi dan
/mencernakan sesuatu maklumat untuk penyelesaian masalah,
cabaran, soalan atau tugasan (QCA, 2007).
+ Kemampuan atau kebolehan mencipta sesuatu yang asli dan
sesuai (DBP 1997).
+Kreativiti di anggap sebagai satu kurniaan di mana seseorang itu
mungkin memilikinya atau tidak. Namun kreativiti sebenarnya
melibatkan kemahiran-kemahiran yang boleh diajar dan dipelajari.
+ Ini atas rasional bahawa walaupun seseorang itu memiliki bakat
dan kreativiti semula jadi, tetapi jika tidak diberi peluang untuk
berkembang, ianya akan pupus dan menjadi sia-sia.


TEORI KREATIVITI TORRANCE

Torrance berpandangan bahawa Kreativiti Sempurna Kendiri dan
Kreativiti Bakat Istimewa adalah proses kreativiti yang menjadikan
individu tersebut sensitif terhadap masalah, merasai kekurangan ilmu
dan pengetahuan serta menghadapi keadaan yang tidak harmoni dalam
diri.

Kreativiti Sempurna Kendiri mempunyai pertalian yang rapat dengan
tahap kesihatan mental tetapi tidak ada hubungan dengan konsep
Genius dan Bakat.

Kreativiti Bakat Istimewa merupakan anugerah yang lahir daripada
bakat semulajadi.
Ini mendorong seseorang itu mengenal pasti kesukaran yang
wujud, mencari penyelesaian dengan membuat tekaan atau
merangka hipotesis tentang kekurangan tersebut, menguji
hipotesis dan melaporkan dapatan atau hasilan yang diperoleh.
Melalui dapatan, maka kreativiti akan terbentuk dan seterusnya
menghasilkan sesuatu yang lebih bermakna dan bernilai.
Torrance berpandangan bahawa ujian kepintaran IQ serta ujian
kertas dan pensil tidak akan memberikan gambaran yang
menyeluruh terhadap tahap kreativiti manusia. Ujian seperti ini
hanya melihat perkembangan dari sudut pandangan yang sempit.

Ciri-ciri Pemikiran Kreatif
Menghasilkan idea baru
Mengutamakan cara lain
Memberi fokus utk mengubah idea
Mencari penyelesaian cara baru
Mencabar apa yg dianggap betul dan terbaik
Tidak mengutamakan logik biasa

Tumpu perhatian pada kemungkinan masa
depan
Mempelbagaikan pendekatan
Merungkai dan mengubah semula konsep
Melihat masalah sebagai peluang
Tidak berputus asa
Tidak terperangkap dgn cara konvensional
STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE
CREATIVE THINKING
(strategi penggalakan pemikiran kreatif)
O Foster the development of mastery in the domain
- Allow students plenty of time to master a domain before
asking them to think creatively about the domain
- Plan lessons so that student can practice the learned
knowledge and skills several times over the course of a
year, instead of just one


O Create a safe learning environment
-Recognize students creative work and divergent perspectives
- Create assignment that will not be evaluated for their
content

O Create an autonomy supporting learning environment
Give students choice about topics or presentation formats

O Encourage brainstorming among student
+ Recall all ideas during brainstorming session without
judgment
+ Have student brainstorming alone, then in pairs or small
group , and then as a large group



O Model creativity
+ Provide examples of creative work and have students
discuss them
+ Bring guest artists, writers, and scientist to the
classroom to share their creative product

O Demonstrate the value of creativity
-Use examples of people who were creative and rewarded
by society
-Show exemplar student work where the use of creativity
has helped solve a problem

O Allow time for creativity
-When planning the day or lesson , allow plenty of time for
the completion of activities so you and your student are
not rushed
- For activities requiring creativity, do not impose tight due
dates or deadlines

Metacognition and study strategies

-The process of thinking about our own thinking
- Metacognition is a complex cognitive process because it
requires being aware of what we know and knowing when
and why to apply different strategies to achieve learning
goals


Study strategies
- Techniques that student use to increase their understanding
of classroom materials

Study strategies

Note taking
+ Most students are generally poor note takers
+ One way to help students become better note takers is
to present guide notes, handout that highlight the most
important ideas and leave enough space so that student
can expand on relevant relationship. guide note are
particularly helpful for student with disabilities,
+ But can help students organize new information,
especially if it is complex. Because good note taking
takes times to develop, it is important to regularly check
students notes and provide them with informational
feedback.

Summarizing

+ Used to help student monitor their comprehension.
Summarizing text can prevent students from taking a
passive reading approach or getting a false of
understanding, especially when the text is easy to read.
This strategy entail identifying and listing the main
ideas of text and distinguishing between relevant and
irrelevant information.

SQ4R

+ A reading comprehension strategy that incorporates the
signaling and elaborative interrogation strategies reviewed
in chapter 6 and the summarizing strategy just described is
called SQ4R.
+ Survey preview the text
+ Question create questions relevant to the text
+ Read actively search for answers to the developed
questions
+ Recite answers the elaborative questions in your own
words
+ Review summarize the text and make notes on murky
parts that may need revision
+ Reflect think about what has been read

Critical thinking

+ The process of systematically examining available
information and coming up with conclusions that are
based on evidence

+ What skill and dispositions are at the core of critical
thinking?
+ Suggested that critical thinking consist of four element
+ Motivation, some knowledge about the issue being
considered , metacognition and set of component skills.

+ First, critical thinking depend on students willingness to
engage in this complex cognitive process
+ Become good critical thinkers, student need to be open
to challenging their own thought , belief and
assumptions.
+ Critical thinking may required student to look for
evidence that contradicts their own theories , such as
when a student who believe that worlds is the result of
divine creation investigates principles of evolution.

+ Second, student need to have some background
knowledge about the issue that is being pondered . the
more knowledge about the topic an individual has, the
better the individual can think about the topic

+ The third element of critical thinking is metacognition .
metacognitive skills are most important for higher-order
processes such as critical thinking because they allow
learners to reflect on their knowledge, beliefs and
strategies

+ Lastly some experts have extended on nickersons model
by proposing a specific set of component skills, the
cognitive processes that are necessary for effective
critical thinking.
+ Ennis identified the 12 critical thinking skill

12 critical thinking skill
1) Focusing on the issue
2) Analyzing the argument surrounding the issue
3) Asking and answering clarification questions
4) Judging the credibility of the sources of evident
5) Observing and judging observation report
6) Making and judging deduction
7) Making and judging induction
8) Making value judgment
9) Defining terms and judging definitions
10) Identifying assumptions
11) Deciding on possible actions
12) Interacting with others