Feminist Psychology

Development of Feminist Theories and Therapeutic Interventions

By W. McIntosh & G. Green

Statistics US Bureau of Census (2000)

Number Females USA143,000,000 Number of Males USA138,000,000

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Statistics US Bureau of Census (2000)

4 4.4 4 4 4 4.4 4 4 4 4.4 4 4 4 4.4 4 4 4 4.4

MALE FEMALE

Population
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The Emergence of Feminist Psychology

Feminist psychology grew out of the
influence of the womens movement of the late 1960s. It originated as a backlash against the traditional assumptions of male dominated theory, research and practices, especially in psychoanalytic theory.
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Emergence
Freuds theories, such as penis envy
and hysteria, which were gender-biased and based on developmental studies of men, were particularly distasteful to supporters of the feminist movement.

Emergence
Feminist Psychology was found by
women who had become aware of the pressures of patriarchy, sexism and male chauvinism that therapy and counseling were not exempt from these pressures.

Emergence
Women discovered that they were put down
in a number of subtle ways, and that all sorts of expectations about the female role and how it should be played were built in to the therapy process. Therefore, they started to set up their own therapy centers and their own network of therapists. In this way, a feminist therapy started to come into being.
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Emergence
The feminist psychology movement
was a grassroots one, and therefore, no one particular theorist can be named as primarily responsible for its development.

Raison d'tre
1. Traditionally accepted psychological
theories and practices regarding mental health standards based on gender were harmful to women.

Raison d'tre
2. Women were labeled of as mentally
ill for political reasons (punishing women for not adhering to expected roles) Women tended to be diagnosed as mentally ill when they didnt conform to male stereotypes and protested the sexism of psychotherapy and psychotherapists

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Raison d'tre
3.The womanless state of psychology
and its development (including women being shut out and womens work being underreported), and 4. The desire to report womens experiences from a womans perspective.
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Feminist Therapy
Examines sociological as well as
psychological factors Helps people understand the impact of gender roles and power differences in society A. Sex: biological difference B. Gender: socially determined thoughts, beliefs and attitudes about men and women
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Theories of Personality
Hare-Mustin and Maracek(1973) - two
biases in the approach to gender Alpha bias - separating men and women into two categories - danger is in treating women as different and therefore inferior Beta bias - treating women and men as identical and ignoring real differences
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Theory Development
Three distinct phases of development
for feminist psychology have emerged, beginning in the 1970s.

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Phase 1
The first phase was characterized by
borrowing therapeutic techniques that fit into the feminist philosophy, with the goal to empower all women by strengthening individual women.

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Phase 2
The second phase is marked by the
inclusion of feminism into more psychological theories where feminists attempted to keep the parts of psychological theories that were sensible and that worked, but tried to eliminate the sexist elements that were present
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Phase 3
The final and ongoing phase consists of
trying to develop a complete theory that explains the common experiences of women and their difficulties arising from living in a society where they are devalued. Such a theory would also integrate the impact of social oppression based on ethnicity, race and culture.
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Principles of Feminist Therapy

The personal is political The counseling relationship is

egalitarian Womens experiences are honored Definitions of distress and "mental illness" are reformulated There is an integrated analysis of oppression
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Key Concepts of Feminist Therapy

Problems are viewed in a
sociopolitical and cultural context The client knows what is best for her life and is the expert on her own life
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Key Concepts
Emphasis is on educating clients
about the therapy process Traditional ways of assessing psychological health are challenged It is assumed that individual change will best occur through social change Clients are encouraged to take social
action
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Developmental Issues

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Childhood

Preference for boy babies over girl

babies Pressure to learn gender stereotypes during elementary school years

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Adolescence
Development of secondary sex
characteristics can be very difficult for girls even more than boys Breast development Focus on thinness

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Adolescence
Females valued for appearance rather
than achievement Teen pregnancy issues Encouragement of independence in boys and nurturance and helplessness in girls
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Adulthood
Mothering Decisions about work and childcare Women are more likely to be blamed for
children's problems Work Women working outside the home often also do all or most of housework - The Second Shift

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Midlife issues

Menopause Devaluation of older women Violence Rape, Incest, Domestic abuse Child abuse
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Goals of Feminist Therapy

To become aware of ones gender-role
socialization process To identify internalized gender-role messages and replace them with functional beliefs To acquire skills to bring about change in the environment
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Goals of Feminist Therapy

To become personally empowered Symptom removal Self-esteem Quality of interpersonal relationships

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Goals of Feminist Therapy

Body image and sensuality Attention to diversity Political awareness and social action

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Four Philosophic Approaches to Feminist Therapy

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1. Liberal Feminism
Focus Helping individual women overcome the limits and constraints of their socialization patterns Major goals Equality
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1. Liberal Feminism

Personal empowerment of
individual women Dignity Self-fulfillment Equality
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Intervention Techniques using the Liberal Feminism Approach

Gender-role analysis and

intervention To help clients understand the impact of gender-role expectations in their lives Provides clients with insight into the ways social issues affect their problems
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Intervention Techniques using the Liberal Feminism Approach

Power analysis and power

intervention Emphasis on the power differences between men and women in society Clients helped to recognize different kinds of power they possess and how they and others exercise power
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Intervention Techniques using the Liberal Feminism Approach

Bibliotherapy- Reading assignments

that address issues such as A. Coping skills Gender inequality B. Gender-role stereotypes Ways sexism is promoted

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2. Cultural Feminism
Focus Oppression stems from societys devaluation of womens strengths Emphasize the differences between women and men Believe the solution to oppression lies in feminization of the culture
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2. Cultural Feminism
So that society becomes more
nurturing, cooperative, and relational Major Goal The infusion of society with values based on cooperation

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Intervention Techniques using the Cultural Feminism Approach

Power differential Society's

obsession between women and men with thinness Self-disclosure

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Intervention Techniques using the Cultural Feminism Approach

To help equalize the therapeutic

relationship and provide modeling for the client Values, beliefs about society, and therapeutic interventions discussed

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3. Radical Feminism
Focus The oppression of women that is embedded in patriarchy Seek to change society through activism Therapy is viewed as a political enterprise with the goal of transformation of society
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3. Radical Feminism
Major goals Transform gender relationships Transform societal institutions Increase womens sexual and procreative self-determination.

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Intervention Techniques using the Radical Feminism Approach

Assertiveness training Women become aware of their

interpersonal rights transcends stereotypical sex roles Changes negative beliefs Implement changes in their daily lives Reframing
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Intervention Techniques using the Radical Feminism Approach

Changes the frame of reference for

looking at an individual's behavior Shifting from an intrapersonal to an interpersonal definition of a clients problem

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4. Socialist Feminism
Focus Goal of societal change Emphasis on multiple oppressions Believe solutions to societys problems must include consideration of: 1. Class
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4. Socialist Feminism
2. Race
3. Other forms of discrimination Major Goal To transform social relationships and institutions

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Intervention Techniques using the Socialist Feminism Approach

Relabeling Changes the label or evaluation applied

to the client's behavioral characteristics Re-focusing- a shift from a negative to a positive evaluation

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Three themes often come up in feminist therapy - anger, self-nurturance and autonomy.

1.Women often turn their anger inwards, and may need a good deal of encouragement to direct it where it really belongs. 2. Women are taught to nurture others, but may not be good at nurturing themselves
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Cont
3. Women are taught cooperation and find
networking very easy, but may need a lot of help to see out through their own eyes and ask "what do I need myself"? This question tends to arouse much anxiety and even guilt, and a feminist approach is necessary if women are to feel that these reactions are unnecessary. Group support very often supplements individual therapy.
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Sometimes certain stages can be recognized:

(1) Increasing self-awareness (2) Acceptance of self-awareness (3) Strengthening of self-acceptance

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Cont
(4) Developing the power to act (5) Recognizing societal restraints (6) Accepting or combating societal
restraints (7) Acceptance of self and other women

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Two Models of Therapy

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Lenore E. A. Walker
A

"A feminist Therapist Views The Case"

from "Women as Therapists" ( Cantor, 1990), provides an overview of the guiding principles of feminist therapy, indicating that there are six tenets of feminist-therapy theory:

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1. Egalitarian Relationships:
1) Egalitarian relationships between
clients and therapists serve as a model for women to take personal responsibility to develop egalitarian relationships with others instead of the more traditional passive, dependent female role.
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Cont
While it is excepted that the therapist
knows more in terms of psychology, the client knows herself better. That knowledge is as critical as the therapist's skills in developing a successful therapeutic relationship.

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2. Power
Women are taught to gain and use power in relationships, and the possible consequences of their actions.

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3. Enhancement of womens strengths

So much of traditional therapy focused on a womans shortcomings and weaknesses that feminist therapists teach women to look for their own strengths and use them effectively. The feminist therapist focuses on the enhancement of women's strengths rather than remediation of their weaknesses.

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4. Non-pathology-oriented and non-victim blaming

In this framework, the medical model is rejected and womens problems are seen as coping mechanisms and viewed in their social context.

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5. Education
Women are taught to recognize their cognitions that are detrimental, and encouraged to educate themselves as to the plight of all women.

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6. Acceptance and Validation of Feelings

Feminist therapists value self-disclosure and attempt to remove the we-they barrier of traditional therapeutic relationships. Feminist therapists accept and validate their clients feelings.

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Cont
They are also more self-disclosing than other therapists thus removing the wethey barrier between therapists and their clients. This limited reciprocity is a feminist goal that is believed to enhance the relationship.

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Models of Therapy B

In A New Approach to Women and

Therapy" (1983), Miriam Greenspan explores the impact of "traditional" and "growth" therapies on women as well as describes "feminist" therapy in action

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Task 1
That the therapist's most essential tool is
herself as a person.

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Task 2
That it is essential therapy be demystified
from the beginning in order for clients to achieve a sense of their own power in therapy. Therapy must be geared to helping the client see that she must be her own rescuer - that the power she longs for is not in someone else but in herself.

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Task 3
That rules of the therapeutic relationship
should be overtly stated and mutually agreed upon. The client and therapist explore their expectations of one another together and jointly come to an agreement of what each person's role and responsibilities will be.

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Task 4
That within every symptom, no matter how
painful or problematic, there exists a strength.

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Issues
One of the main issues in feminist therapy
is a woman's relation to work (a) doing well at a job does not have to be a masculine act and (b) the ability to make choices, and to sustain these choices.

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Bibliography Feminist Psychology

Anderson, G. & Hill, M. (1997) eds. Children's
Rights, Therapists' Responsibilities. Haworth Press, 1997. Burman, E. (1997). Deconstructing Feminist Psychology. NY: Sage. Burr, V. (1998). Gender and Social Psychology. NY: Routledge. Wilkinson, S. & Kitzinger, C. (1993). eds. Heterosexuality: A Feminism and Psychology Reader. NY: Sage.
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