Introduction

The goal of firefighting and rescue work is to get the

emergency situation under control as soon as possible and to minimise the eventual human and material losses (Makinen, 1991) The tasks performed by firefighters have become diverse. Their work on fires includes structural firefighting, aircraft fires and other vehicle fires, wildland firefighting, and a number of other types of fires.

Hazards in different firefighting tasks

Firefighting Heat and fire in different forms are the most important hazards in firefighting. The thermal hazards in ground fire conditions are usually radiant or convective energy from open flames, explosions, flashing or back-draughts or radiant heat from hot surfaces, objects, etc., falling objects, debris and hot materials or objects exposed to contact heat

 Wildland firefighting
Wildland firefighters generally operate for long

periods (816 h/day) and are generally exposed to a radiant heat flux of 1 kW/m2 to 8 kW/m2 But they can be exposed during increased activities in extreme fire conditions for shorter periods to higher radiant heat fluxes up to 100 kW/m The hazards in wildland fires vary, depending mainly on the following factors (Donarski and Poulin, 2004): fine fuel load, fire danger index, slope, drought factor, air temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, fuel volume

Motor vehicle accident

When removing victims from the accident vehicles

many tools with a high level of working power are needed. This creates mechanical hazards as well as flyingpieces of sharp broken glass, sharp metal, etc. There is also the risk of the fuel tank exploding. The normal traffic presents an additional risk on the roads and highways.

 chemical hazards (broken gas lines, open solvent

containers) biological hazards (direct exposure to bacteriacontaminated water, involvement in emergency medical services, contact with victims having infectious diseases).

Clothing for firefighting

Firefighters' garments should be designed to perform

several functions, the most important of which is protection against heat and flames. Protection against moisture is also important, depending on the type of extinguishing method. Theclothing should, additionally, give some degree of protection against mechanical hazards such as cuts and abrasions. In addition, some protection should be given against chemical and biological contact.

 The tendency to design the level of multi-purpose

protection of personal protective equipment for actual fires and against the worst possible scenarios has led to the situation that firefighters are overprotected during the main part of their working time, except for incidents with hazardous materials.

 ISO TC 94/SC 14/WG 3 specifies the following criteria

for firefighters optimal protective clothing for wildland firefighting. The clothing shall permit free evaporation of sweat and be loose-fitting, light, well ventilated and permeable to water vapour shield firefighters from radiant heat completely dissipate metabolic heat allow free evaporation of 12 l of perspiration per hour sustain a thermal equilibrium and comfort in a wide spectrum of fire intensity, weather, work intensity and duration minimise the risk of burn injuries

Specifications given in standards

Before the 1980s there were only national

requirements for firefighters clothing. In the 1980s ISO/TC94/SC13/WG2 started the standardisation work for firefighters' protective clothing. Standards for test methods and performance requirements concerning firefighters' protective clothing for structural firefighting (ISO 11613:1999), wildland (ISO15384:2003) and specialised (ISO 15538:2001) firefighting are now available.

 In Europe, CEN TC 162/WG 2 prepares specification

standards and test methods for activities in which heat and fire are the hazard. European standards for structural firefighting (EN 469:1995), specialised (EN 1496: 1997) firefighting and for fire hoods (EN 13911:2004) are available for firefighters' protective clothing. The USA and Canada follow NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) standards for firefighters' protective clothing. NFPA 1971 (2000) covers minimum design and performance criteria and test methods for protective clothing designed to protect firefightersagainst adverse environmental effects during structural firefighting.

 Protective clothing ensembles for structural

firefighting typically consist of a flame-resistant outer shell material and of an inner liner which is generally composed of a moisture barrier and a thermal barrier and lining material. The clothing for wildland firefighting is a one- or twolayer garment. The outer layer of the protective garment for specialised firefighting reflects radiant heat, utilising aluminised outer surfaces.

Outer shell
The outer shell is the first line of defence for the

firefighter. It provides flame resistance, thermal resistance, and mechanical resistance to cuts, snags, tears and abrasion (Holmes, 2000a). Today normally only inherently flame-retardant fibres, such as aromatic polyamides (aramids) and polybenzimidazole (PBI) are used for the outer layers of firefighters' turnout suits.

 On the market there are meta-aramids from different

manufacturers, e.g., Nomex (DuPont), Conex (Teijin), Fenilon (Russian) and Apyeil (Unitika). Para-aramid fibres like Kevlar (DuPont), Twaron (Akzo Nobel) and Technora (Teijin) are used in blends with meta-aramids to increase durability, e.g., Nomex III (blend of Nomex and Kevlar (95/5%) and X-fire (blend of Teijin Conex and Technora). Especially in France, a polyamide-imide fibre called Kermel from Rhone-Poulenc is used for firefighters' protective clothing.

 Polybenzimidazole (PBI) fibre was developed by

Celanese. Its advantage is that it absorbs more moisture than does cotton, and has a comfort rating from the wearers equivalent to that of 100% cotton The fibres on the market have, e.g., the following trade names: Nomex III, Nomex Antistatic (IIIA), Nomex Outershell Tough (Delta T), Kermel HTA, PBIGold (Ibena). Typical blends are PBI/aramid, Nomex with flameretardant viscose and flame-retardant wool, Kermel with viscose. Typical constructions of the outer fabrics are twill or ripstop woven fabrics with a mass of 195270 g/m2. In addition to the above fibres in the garments for wildland firefighting,

 Some materials with flame-retardant finishes (FR)

(e.g. Proban and Pyrovatex for cotton) are used. They must retain the FR properties after 50 launderings (ISO 15384:2003).

Thermal liner
The thermal liner prevents the transfer of heat from

the environment to the body It can consist of a spunlaced, nonwoven felt or batting quilted or laminated to a woven lining fabric. It can also be a knitted fabric between the outer shell and the lining to give the highest insulation against heat, but at the same time allow the escape of moisture due to perspiration. The thermal liner is normally made of inherently flame-retardant fabrics or their blends. A similar fibre content of the thermal liner and outer shell fabric make the laundering of the garment easier.

 Fibres and yarns are not the real thermal insulators of

a garment because fibres conduct heat 1020 times better than still air. The WL Gore company therefore developed a non-textile insulation material, i.e., an air cushion to replace the traditional textile insulation. Airlock is a combination of a moisture barrier and thermal protection. `Spacers' made of foamed silicone on the GORE-TEX moisture barrier create the insulating air buffer in the material (Hocke et al., 2000).

Moisture barrier
A moisture barrier is obligatory in some countries,

whereas in some countries firefighters prefer suits without a moisture barrier because of their thermal comfort The moisture barrier in firefighters' clothing is (i) laminated or coated to the inside of the outer shell fabric, (ii) is a lightweight knitted material or web, and the structure is inserted loosely between the outer fabric and the liner, or (iii)is on the outside of the thermal liner.

 The moisture barrier provides protection against water

as well as against many common liquids such as common chemicals and bloodborne pathogens The moisture barrier can be a microporous or hydrophilic membrane or coating (Holmes, 2000b; Anon., 1999). GORE- TEX, CROSSTECH and TETRATEX are textile laminates incorporating microporous polytetrafluoroethylene. PORELLE, PROLINE and VAPRO are microporous polyurethane laminates with textiles. BREATHE-TEX PLUS,STEDAIR 2000 are hydrophilic polyurethane laminates or coated fabrics, SYMPATEX is a hydrophilic polyester laminat

 The microporous and hydrophilic coatings are

normally polyurethane products. ACTION is example of a polyurethane coating. Neoprene (NEOGUARD) and polyvinyl chloride(PVC) are nonbreathable moisture barrier products.

Accessory materials
Materials to improve visibility are important accessory

materials. For instance, fluorescent materials are used to increase day-time visibility and retroreflective materials night-time visibility. The colours of these materials are very sensitive when exposed to the smoky environments in firefighting. The retroreflective material and fluorescent colours are often combined in the trim near the hands, head and feet of garments. Motion increases the visibility.

Design, sizing and ergonomics

The design of the garments must take into

consideration easy donning and doffing, collar design and closing system, the shoulder, elbow and underarm, the back for increased mobility, pockets, closure system of the whole garment, construction of the knee area and the crotch. Bellows and gussets can be placed in the shoulder and elbow area to allow more movement and flexibility. The design should always take into account the use of breathing apparatus, helmet, fire hood, gloves and footwear.

 Compatibility with other personal protective devices is

one basic requirement of the PPE directive 89/645/EEC on personal protective equipment (Council Directive, 1989). For example, the straps of the SCBA may hinder reaching into the pockets.

Why Should an Experienced Firefighter Review PPE?

Whats wrong in the pictures below?

Whats Wrong?
SCBA is on upside down

Whats Wrong?

Short gloves being worn without use of wristlets!

Whats Wrong?
Suspenders hanging down!

Whats Wrong?
Hood is outside of coat!

NFPA 1971
NFPA 1971 Standard on Protective Ensembles for

Structural Fire Fighting & Proximity Fire Fighting 2007 Edition sets minimum guidelines for the construction and design of fire service protective equipment. In addition, NFPA 1971 requires certain labeling for compliance. You should make sure each piece of your PPE is NFPA compliant.

PPE Components

Helmet
Helmets come in an array of models and styles.

Helmets must be used in accordance with manufacturer recommendations.

Helmet Key Components

Hard Cover Reflective Striping Eye Protection (Goggles)

Flame Retardant Neck Cover Chin Strap

Fold Down Eye Protection Helmet Adjustment

Protective Hoods
NFPA 1971, 3.3.127 The interface element of the protective ensemble that provides limited protection to the coat/helmet/SCBA face piece interface area.

Eye Protection
Face Shields & Goggles

Face shields will only provide limited eye protection. Goggles or safety glasses should be used when there is an increased exposure to flying particles.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Coat

NFPA 1971, 3.3.119 The element of the protective ensemble that provides protection to the upper torso and arms, excluding the hands and head.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Coat (Outer Shell)

The outer layer of structural fire fighting protective coats are made from flame retardant material such as Nomex, PBI, or Kevlar. It also has numerous reflective markers so that a firefighter can be seen in the dark.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Coat (Outer Shell)

The outer layer has several key components such as an inner zipper & an outer flap, a neck flap, and wristlets.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Coat (Outer Shell)

The outer layer may be equipped with a fire fighter rescue strap as shown below.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Coat (Inner Shell)

The inner shell consists of a moister barrier attached to a thermal layer.

Moister Barrier Thermal Layer

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Coat (Inner Shell)

The inner shell should have a label attached ensuring its compliance to the current edition of NFPA 1971.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Trousers

NFPA 1971 3.3.128 The element of the protective

ensemble that provides protection to the lower torso and legs, excluding the ankles and feet.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Trousers Outer Shell

Trousers are made from the same material as

protective coats. They may be constructed in a bib like configuration or waist design. The outer shell repels water and resists abrasion.

The outer shell usually has reinforced knees to provide additional protection in areas subject to extreme abrasion.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Trousers Inner Shell

The inner shell provides a moisture barrier and

thermal protection. NFPA 1971 requires a label to be affixed to the inner shell stating compliance to NFPA 1971.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Footwear

NFPA 1971, 3.3.123 The element of the protective

ensemble that provides protection to the foot, ankle, and lower leg. The fire fighters boot may be constructed of rubber or leather and can be a slip-on or laced style. Footwear should be water proof; cut resistant; slip resistant; and made with a heavy sole and reinforced toe to prevent injury.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Glove

NFPA 1971, 3.3.125 The element of the protective

ensemble that provides protection to the hand and wrist.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Glove

Gloves play an important role to the protection of a fire fighter in that they must provide thermal protection, and in addition provide suitable dexterity for the fire fighter so they can work with their hands effectively.

Gloves may be short or long, depending on whether wristlets are used with the fire fighters protective coat.

Material selection
Gloves use the same principles of layering materials as

applied to garments. Structural firefighting gloves employ the same functional three-layer construction as turnout gear. For gloves, there is a shell, which may be either leather or textile. Inside the shell is a moisture barrier or barrier layer that may be separate or combined with a thermal lining. All layers must work together to provide protection to the hands. However, in the selection of these layers there are tradeoffs that dictate the use of certain materials to limit the reduction of firefighter dexterity, grip, and tactility.

 Shell materials tend to be leather, including cowhide, elk,

pigskin, goat and other specialty leathers. These leathers have different characteristics in terms of their durability as well as their suppleness. The thickness of the leather is often dictated by the various performance requirements that are governed by the criteria in NFPA 1971, Standard on Protective Ensembles for Structural and Proximity Fire Fighting. While thinner leathers may provide better hand mobility, the leather probably will not be rugged enough for fireground use, or simply not provide sufficient insulation. Typically, all leathers are specially tanned for flame resistance. Unfortunately, this has the net effect of stiffening the leather. Textile shells, principally Kevlar, are being used more and more, but require additional reinforcements to permit needed puncture resistance.

Each piece of the firefighters structural protective ensemble is important. Always wear PPE in accordance with NFPA and manufactures recommendations..