El Amraouiyine imad

WiMAX , the acronym of Worldwide Interoperability

for Microwave Access, is a technology created in 2004 corresponding to the standard 802.16 of IEEE. The aim of this new technology is to provide business and consumer broadband access on the scale of MAN (Metropolitan Area Network).It can be considered the evolution of the Wi-fi, since it offers higher data rates with coverage of up to 50 kilometers.

 This is the history overview about the 802.16 standards: 802.16 (Dec 2001): Original fixed wireless broadband access

for the bands in the 10 66GHz. Line-of-sight (LOS) only and Point-to-Multi-Point (MPM).Maximum range of 5 Km 802.16c (2002): Amendement. WiMAX system profiles 1066GHz 802.16a (Jan 2003): Improvement for non-line-of-sight (NLOS) and providing last-mile access to a broadband Internet service provider (ISP). 802.16d (Oct 2004): Adds WiMAX system profiles. Maximum range of 50 Km 802.16e (Dec 2005): Layers PHY and MAC to enable moving subscribers. Maximum range of 5 km.

 Analog to Digital converters, and their counterparts,

Digital to Analog converters are used all the time in electronics. Indeed, they provide the only method by which one may interface a digital system with the real world, which functions in analog.

 Data converters are categorized as either Nyquist-rate or

oversampled architectures. The former class of converter includes architectures that are typically open-loop and that operate at sampling rates that (usually) do not exceed 10 times the Nyquist rate. The Nyquist-rate D/A converter is the basis of many architectures and is formed by a series of passive or active elements, switches, and an output buffer, Oversampled converters are feedback systems that operate with relatively high clock rates, up to 100 times the Nyquist rate or more. The kernel of the oversampled converter is the deltasigma modulator, which embeds a quantizer and filter within a feedback loop.

 The flash or parallel converter, is perhaps the most

straightforward type of Nyquist-rate A/D. A thermometer-coded binary number is generated through approximately 2N parallel comparisons; conversion to conventional binary code (in addition to error correction) is performed by digital logic. The main advantage of this approach is speed.

 The digital-to-analog (D/A) converter is one of the

basic building blocks of most analog/digital interface systems. For example, in Telecommunication applications like radio transmitters require D/A converters (DACs) operating at hundreds of MHz for resolutions in the range of 1015 bits. There are several architectures for D/A converters depending on the speed, resolution, complexity, and area requirement.

 When data is in binary form, the 0's and 1's may be of

several forms such as the TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) form where the logic zero may be a value up to 0.8 volts and the 1 may be a voltage from 2 to 5 volts. The data can be converted to clean digital form using gates which are designed to be on or off depending on the value of the incoming signal. Data in clean binary digital form can be converted to an analog form by using a summing amplifier. For example, a simple 4-bit D/A converter can be made with a four-input summing amplifier.

 2 Basic Approaches: Weighted Summing Amplifier R-2R Network Approach

 One way to achieve D/A conversion is to use a

summing amplifier. This approach is not satisfactory for a large number of bits because it requires too much precision in the summing resistors. This problem is overcome in the R-2R network DAC.

 We are going to start by examining a simple

circuit. This circuit is an operational amplifier circuit with three input voltages. Each input voltage is either zero volts or five volts and represents a logical 0 or 1. The input resistors are chosen so that they are not all equal. The resistors are related by: Rc = 2Rb = 4Ra.

 Expression for the output voltage:

Vout = (RfVa /Ra) + (RfVb /Rb) + (RfVc /Rc) We have : Rc = 2Rb = 4Ra Then, the output voltage expression becomes: Vout = (RfVa /Ra) + (RfVb /2Ra) + (RfVc /4Ra) Each input voltage is either zero (0) or five (5) volts, representing either a zero or a one Va = 5A2 Vb = 5A1 then Vout = (5Rf/4Ra)(4A2 + 2A1 + Ao ) Vc = 5Ao.

The inputs can be thought of as a binary number, one that can run from zero (0) to seven (7). The output is a voltage that is proportional to the binary number input.

 It uses resistors of only two different values. An N-bit

DAC requires 2N resistors, and they are quite easily trimmed. There are also relatively few resistors to trim.

 The summing amplifier with the R-2R ladder of resistances

shown produces the output where the D's take the value 0 or 1. The digital inputs could be TTL voltages which close the switches on a logical 1 and leave it grounded for a logical 0. This is illustrated for 4 bits, but can be extended to any number with just the resistance values R and 2R.

 A/D converters may be designed for voltages from 0 to

10v, from -5 to +5v, etc., but they almost always take a voltage input. The output of the A/D converter is a binary signal, and that binary signal encodes the analog input voltage. So, the output is some sort of digital number. 3 -Basic Types:
Digital-Ramp ADC

Successive Approximation ADC Flash ADC

 Conversion from analog to digital form inherently involves

comparator action where the value of the analog voltage at some point in time is compared with some standard. A common way to do that is to apply the analog voltage to one terminal of a comparator and trigger a binary counter which drives a DAC. The output of the DAC is applied to the other terminal of the comparator. Since the output of the DAC is increasing with the counter, it will trigger the comparator at some point when its voltage exceeds the analog input. The transition of the comparator stops the binary counter, which at that point holds the digital value corresponding to the analog voltage.

It is the fastest type of ADC available, but requires a comparator for each value of output.(63 for 6-bit, 255 for 8-bit, etc.) Such ADCs are available in IC form up to 8-bit and 10-bit flash ADCs (1023 comparators) are planned. The encoder logic executes a truth table to convert the ladder of inputs to the binary number output.

 The resistor net and comparators provide an input to

the combinational logic circuit, so the conversion time is just the propagation delay through the network - it is not limited by the clock rate or some convergence sequence.