Documenti di Didattica
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Dr Retha Wiesner
Views on leadership
Good management brings about order and consistency by drawing up formal plans, designing rigid organisation structures, and monitoring results against the plans. Leadership is about coping with change. Leaders establish direction by developing a vision of the future; then they align people by communicating this vision and inspiring them to overcome hurdles.
The source of this influence may be formal. A person may assume a leadership role simply because of his/her position. Not all leaders are managers, nor, for that matter, are all managers leaders. Non-sanctioned leadershipthe ability to influence that arises outside the formal structure of the organisationis often as important as or more important than formal influence. Leaders can emerge from within a group as well as by formal appointment to lead a group.
Effective Leadership
Biological factors Personality traits Behavioural styles Situational (transactional) skills Transformational ability
Trait Theories
Leadership Traits:
Ambition and energy The desire to lead
Intelligence
Job-relevant knowledge
to differentiate leaders from nonleaders by who they are Overlook needs of followers Fail to clarify trait's relative importance Don't separate cause from effect Ignore situational factors
6 Consistent Traits that differentiate effective leaders from non-effective leaders; Honesty Self -Confidence Ambition High Energy Level Task Relevance & Knowledge The Desire to Lead according to followers; Honesty &Integrity Forward Looking Inspiring Competent Fair Minded Supportive More Recently Self- Monitors - flexible in adjusting their behaviours to situations to be effective.
Behavioural Theories
behavioural theories of leadership
consideration
The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterised by mutual trust, respect for subordinates ideas, and regards for their feelings.
production-oriented leader
One who emphasises technical or task aspects of the job.
Seek to differentiate leaders from nonleaders by what they do Still ignore situational factors
High 9
1.9 Country Club Management Thoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organisation atmosphere and work tempo.
9.9 Team Management Work accomplishment from committed people, interdepen- dence through a common stake in organisation purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect.
4 Low 3
5.5 Organisation Management Adequate organisation performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining 9.1 morale of people at a satisfactory level. 1.1 Authority-Obedience Impoverished Management Efficiency in operations results from Exertion of minimum effort to get required arranging conditions of work in such a way work done is appropriate to sustain that human elements interfere to a organisation membership. minimum degree.
1 Low
9 High
Manager Manager presents defines problem, gets limits, suggestions, asks makes group to decision make decision
Transparency 11-9
Task-Development-People
Development Development of people and ideas
Effective groups depend upon a proper match between a leader's style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader.
Fiedler believed that a key factor in leadership success is the individuals basic leadership style. He created the least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire for this purpose.
a. It purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented. b. The questionnaire contains 16 contrasting adjectives (such as pleasant-unpleasant, efficient-inefficient, openguarded, supportive-hostile). c. It asks respondents to describe the one person they least enjoyed working with by rating him or her on a scale of one-to-eight for each of the 16 sets of contrasting adjectives. d. Fiedler believes that based on the respondents answers to this questionnaire, he can determine their basic leadership style.
(cont)
e. If the least preferred co-worker is described in relatively positive terms (a high LPC score), the respondent is primarily interested in good personal relations with this co-worker. f. If the least preferred co-worker is seen in relatively unfavourable terms (a low LPC score), the respondent is primarily interested in productivity and thus would be labelled taskoriented. About 16 percent of respondents cannot be classified as either.
After assessing leadership style, it is necessary to match the leader with the situation. Fiedler has identified three contingency dimensions:
a. Leader-member relationsThe degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leader b. Task structureThe degree to which the job assignments are procedural. c. Position powerThe degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases
The next step is to evaluate the situation in terms of these three contingency variables.
a. Leader-member relations are either good or poor. b. Task structure is either high or low. Position power is either strong or weak.
Fiedler states the better the leader-member relations, the more highly structured the job, and the stronger the position power, the more control the leader has. Altogether, by mixing the three contingency variables, there are potentially eight different situations or categories in which leaders could find themselves.
The Fiedler model proposes matching them up to achieve maximum leadership effectiveness. Fiedler concluded that task-oriented leaders tend to perform better in situations that were very favourable to them and in situations that were very unfavourable.
a. Fiedler would predict that when faced with a category I, II, Ill, VII, or VIII situation, task- oriented leaders perform better. b. Relationship-oriented leaders, however, perform better in moderately favourable situationscategories IV through VI.
Fiedler has condensed these eight situations to three. Task-oriented leaders perform best in situations of high and low control, while relationship-oriented leaders perform best in moderate control situations. Given Fiedlers findings, you would seek to match leaders and situations. Because Fiedler views an individuals leadership style as being fixed, there are only two ways to improve leader effectiveness.
First, you can change the leader to fit the situation. The second alternative would be to change the situation to fit the leader.
. Evaluation:
There is considerable evidence to support at least substantial parts of the model. If predictions from the model use only three categories rather than the original eight, there is ample evidence to support Fiedlers conclusions. There are problems and the practical use of the model that need to be addressed. The logic underlying the LPC is not well understood and studies have shown that respondents LPC scores are not stable. Also, the contingency variables are complex and difficult for practitioners to assess.
Relationship Behavior
High
Low
Task Behavior
Able and willing Able and unwilling Unable and willing Unable and unwilling
High
Low
Follower Readiness
D4
Transparency Master 11-13
D3 D2 Developmental Level
D1
a. The leader-member exchange (LMX) theory argues that because of time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers. b. These individuals make up the in-groupthey are trusted, get a disproportionate amount of the leaders attention, and are more likely to receive special privileges. c. The theory proposes that early in the history of the interaction between a leader and a given follower, the leader implicitly categorises the follower as an in or an out and that relationship is relatively stable over time.
How the leader chooses who falls into each category is unclear. (See Figure). The leader does the choosing on the basis of the followers characteristics.
The theory and research surrounding it provide substantive evidence that leaders do
Leader
Formal relations
Subordinate
A
Subordinate
B
Subordinate
C
Subordinate
D
Subordinate
E
Subordinate
F
In Group
Out Group
Path-Goal Theory
path-goal theory
The theory that it is the leaders job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organisation.
Path-Goal (cont)
1. One of the most respected approaches to leadership is the path-goal theory developed by Robert House. 2. It is a contingency model of leadership which extracts key elements from the Ohio State leadership research on initiating structure and consideration and the expectancy theory of motivation. 3. It is the leaders job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the firm. 4. The term path-goal is derived from the belief that effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve their work goals.
The directive leader lets followers know what is expected of them, etc. The supportive leader is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers. The participative leader consults with followers and uses their suggestions before making a decision. The achievement-oriented leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level.
In contrast to Fiedler, House assumes leaders are flexible and can display any of these behaviours.
Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out. Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks. Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with high perceived ability or with considerable experience. Employees with an internal locus of control will be more satisfied with a participative style. Achievement-oriented leadership will increase employees expectancies that effort will lead to high performance when tasks are ambiguously structured. Research evidence generally supports the logic underlying the path-goal theory.
Transparency 11-15
Attribution Theory-leadership is in the eye of the follower Charismatic Leaders-followers attribute many leadership abilities to people perceived as exhibiting some leadership qualities Transactional Leaders-guide followers toward established goals Transformational leaders--provide stimulation toward new development and reinvention of the group
Charismatic Leadership
Five such characteristics: They have a vision. They are willing to take risks to achieve that vision. They are sensitive to both environmental constraints and follower needs. They exhibit behaviours that are out of the ordinarythat differentiate charismatic leaders from non-charismatic ones.
Self Confidence Vision Articulation of vision Strong conviction about vision Behaviour out of the ordinary
There is an increasing body of research that shows impressive correlations between charismatic leadership and high performance and satisfaction among followers.
An individual needs to develop the aura of charisma by maintaining an optimistic view; using passion as a catalyst for generating enthusiasm; and communicating with the whole body, not just with words. An individual draws others in by creating a bond that inspires others to follow. The individual brings out the potential in followers by tapping into their emotions.
Charisma appears to be most appropriate when the followers task has an ideological component or when the environment involves a high degree of stress and uncertainty
Transformational Leadership
Most of the leadership theories have concerned transactional leaders. These kinds of leaders guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.
Transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own selfinterests for the good of the organisation. They change followers awareness of issues by helping them to look at old problems in new ways; and they are able to excite, arouse, and inspire followers to put out extra effort to achieve group goals. Transformational leadership is built on top of transactional leadership it produces levels of follower effort and performance that go beyond what would occur with a transactional approach alone.
Evidence indicates that transformational leadership is more strongly correlated with lower turnover rates, higher productivity, and higher employee satisfaction.
Visionary Leadership
Visionary leadership is the ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, attractive vision of the future for an organisation or organisational unit, that grows out of and improves upon the present. This vision is so energising that it in effect jump-starts the future by calling forth the skills, talents, and resources to make it happen. Vision differs from other forms of direction setting in several ways:
A vision has clear and compelling imagery that offers an innovative way to improve, which recognises and draws on traditions, and connects to actions that people can take to realise change. Vision taps peoples emotions and energy. Properly articulated, a vision creates the enthusiasm that people have for sporting events and other leisure-time activities, bringing this energy and commitment to the workplace.
Qualities of a Vision:
The key properties of a vision seem to be inspirational possibilities that are value cantered, realisable, with superior imagery and articulation. Desirable visions fit the times and circumstances and reflect the uniqueness of the organisation. People in the organisation must also believe that the vision is attainable. It should be perceived as challenging yet do-able. Visions that have clear articulation and powerful imagery are more easily grasped and accepted.
The ability to explain the vision to others. Ability to express the vision not just verbally but through the leaders behaviour. The third skill is being able to extend the vision to different leadership contexts.
IQ and technical skills are threshold capabilities. They are necessary, but not sufficient requirements for leadership:
Self-awareness: Exhibited by self-confidence, realistic selfassessment, and a self-deprecating sense of humour Self-management: Exhibited by trustworthiness and integrity, comfort with ambiguity, and openness to change Self-motivation: Exhibited by a strong drive to achieve, optimism, and high organisational commitment Empathy: Exhibited by expertise in building and retaining talent, cross-cultural sensitivity, and service to clients and customers Social skills: Exhibited by the ability to lead change, persuasiveness, and expertise in building and leading teams
Self-Leadership
Model self-leadership. Practice self-observation, set challenging personal goals, self-direction, and self-reinforcement. Then display these behaviours and encourage others to rehearse and then produce them. Encourage employees to create self-set goals. Having quantitative, specific goals is the most important part of self-leadership. Encourage the use of self-rewards to strengthen and increase desirable behaviours. In contrast, self-punishment should be limited only to occasions when the employee has been dishonest or destructive. Create positive thought patterns. Encourage employees to use mental imagery and self-talk to further stimulate self-motivation. Create a climate of self-leadership. Redesign the work to increase the natural rewards of a job and focus on these naturally rewarding features of work to increase motivation. Encourage self-criticism. Encourage individuals to be critical of their own performance.
Leaders need to be sure the tone of their message correctly reflects the emotions they want to send Online leaders must choose a style. Do they use emoticons, abbreviations, jargon, and the like? The skill of reading between the lines in the messages they receive.
Transformational ability A motivating vision Stimulates followers to think Situational skillIndividual consideration
Personality Honesty and Integrity Intellectual Intelligence Emotional Intelligence Self - Monitoring Self Confidence
Behavioural style task - and people - oriented men more task -, goal - directed women more facilitative, relationship - directed Self - Efficacy Energy and ambition Charisma Desire to lead
Vary style (directive or supportive) to fit: followers motivation and competence task urgency power leader-member relations ability to achieve subordinates goals type of decision needed
Biological
Leadership Development
They need intellectual eagerness, and must learn easily. They must have good memories, determination and a fondness for hard work. If we pick those who are sound in limb and mind and then put them through a long course of instruction and training, we will preserve the constitution of society. Plato Components of Effective Programs Conceptual understanding of leadership Personal growth Feedback and coaching
Skill Building
Developmental centres
Get CEO Commitment Match actions and words Ensure two-way communication Emphasise face-to-face Share responsibility Confront bad news Shape the message for intended audience Treat communications as an ongoing process