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l, or frequency, n c=ln
Black-body radiation Planck: vibrating atoms in a heated object give rise to the emitted EM radiation; these vibrations are quantized Energy of vibration = h n Photoelectric effect
Calculate the energy of each photon of blue light of frequency 6.40 x 1014 Hz. What is the energy of a mole of photons of this frequency?
E for a mole of photons = 4.20 x 10-19 J x 6.023 x 1023/mole = 2.53 x 105 J/mole or 253 kJ/mol
(nm)
n1 = 3, 4,
n2 = n1 + 1, n1 + 2, ...
The Bohr Model of the Atom: explains spectra of oneelectron atoms such as H, He+, Li2+. Also accounts for the stability of the atom.
Bohr theory
1) Quantization of angular momentum: For electrons, only those orbits, or energy state that have certain values of angular momentum are allowed Allowed orbits: angular momentum = n h / 2 p (n = 1, 2, 3, ..)
2) As long as an electron stays in an allowed orbit it does not absorb or emit energy
3) Emission or absorption occurs only during transitions between allowed orbits. The emission and absorption are observed in spectra.
ao
En
h2
2
me a2 o
En B
1 n2
Electrons can move from one allowed orbit to another, changing n is the energy absorbed or released equals the energy difference between allowed orbits of two different n values
c 1 1 E h h B[ ] 2 l n2 n1 2 E h Z (
2
1 n2 2
1
2 n1
)Ry
An electron in an atom can exist only in a series of discrete levels When an electron makes a transition, its energy changes from one of these levels to another. The difference in energy E = Eupper - Elower is carried away as a photon The frequency of the photon emitted, n = E/h
The observation of discrete spectral lines suggest that an electron in an atom can have only certain energies/
Electron transitions between energy levels result in emission or absorbption of photons in accord with the Bohr frequency condition.
Lyman series: n1 = 1 Balmer series: n1 = 2 Paschen series: n1 = 3 Brackett series: n1 = 4 Pfund series: n1 = 5
Could not be used to determine energies of atoms with more than one electron.
Unable to explain fine structure observed in H atom spectra
Cannot be used to understand bonding in molecules, nor can it be used to calculate energies of even the simplest molecules.
Bohrs model based on classical mechanics, used a quantization restriction on a classical model.
Wave-Particle Duality
Light is a traveling wave. Wave properties demonstrated through interference and diffraction
Interference of light
Diffraction of light
Einsteins experiments are explained by the particle nature of light - photons Light behaves as both a wave and a particle
h l= p
where p = m v, the linear momentum of the particle
For a golf ball of mass 1.62 ounces (0.0459 kg), propelled at an average speed of 150. Mi/hr (67.1 m/s), the deBroglie wavelength is 2.15 x 10-34 m; too small to be measured
Wavelength of an electron (me = 9.11 x 10-31 kg) moving at a speed of 3.00 x 107 m/s is 2.42 x 10-11 m; corresponds to the X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: if the location of a particle is known to within an uncertainty of x, then the linear momentum parallel to the x axis can be known only to within p, where x p 1 h 2 h h= 2p Max Born: If the energy of an electron in an atom is known with a small uncertainty, then there must be a large uncertainty in its position. Can only assess the probability of finding an electron with a given energy within a given region of space
Wave Mechanics
E. Schrdinger: Electron in an atom could be described by equations of wave motion
Standing waves: vibrations set up by plucking a string stretched taut between two fixed pegs Ends are fixed; l of allowed oscillations satisfy nl =L 2 n = 1, 2, 3,.
node
third harmonic
n2 = 2 n1
n3 = 3n1
second harmonic
Electrons are wave-like and exist in stable standing waves, called stationary states, about the nucleus. Wave mechanics depicts the electron as a wave-packet
Stationary states with the circumference being divisible into an integral number of wavelengths
From wave mechanics can show that allowed stationary states satisfy the condition: nh me v r = 2p
y2 is the probability density. To calculate the probability that a particle is in a small region in space multiply y2 by the volume of the region. Probability = y2 (x,y,z) dx dy dz
Schrdinger Equation
The Schrdinger equation describes the motion of a particle of mass m moving in a region where the potential energy is described by V(x). d2 y -h 2 m dx2 + V(x) y = E y (1-dimension)
Only certain wave functions are allowed for the electron in an atom The solutions to the equation defines the wavefunctions and energies of the allowed states
An outcome of Schrdingers equation is that the particle can only possess certain values of energy, i.e. energy of a particle is quantized. For example, one of the simplest example is that of a particle confined between two rigid walls a distance of L apart particle in a box
Only certain wavelengths can exist in the box, just as a stretched guitar string can support only certain wavelengths.
n = 1, 2, ..
n is called the quantum number
Energy of the particle is quantized, restricted to discrete values, called energy level.
En = n2 h2 / (8 m L2)
Also, a particle in the container cannot have zero-energy - zeropoint energy At the lowest level, n = 1, E1 > 0
The probability density for a particle at a location is proportional to the square of the wavefunction at that point
To find the energy levels of an electron in the H atom, solve the Schrdinger equation. In the H atom the potential that the electron feels is the electrostatic interaction between it and the positive nucleus V(r ) = - e2 / (4 p eo r) r: distance between the electron and the nucleus. Solution for allowed energy levels is: En = - h R n2 n = 1, 2,...
Showed that quantum mechanics did indeed explain behavior of the electron Note that the energy of an electron bound in a H atom is always lower than that of a free electron (as indicated by the negative sign)
n: principle quantum number. Labels the energy levels When n = 1 => ground state of the H atom. Electron in its lowest energy n > 1 : excited states; energy increases as n increases