Ethnography of Communication

Ethnography of communication
The application of ethnographic methods to the communication patterns of a group. Originator: Dell Hymes (1962, "Ethnography of speaking and 1964 Introduction: Toward Ethnographies of Communication. Means by which to study the interactions among members of various cultures: which types of communication events and codes exist in them, which social significance they have, how language is used in them and which meanings it carries, and how group members learn to interprete the code within a given type of speech event.

Basic principles
Ethnographers of communication analyse communicative patters using the method of participant observation. They analyse language use as an aspect of social life of a community. A key goal is to learn what members of a culture know about how to make sense out of experience, and how to communicate those interpretations analyse their communicative competence This implies embracing an emic view of the given speech event or practice.

Functional perspective
Primacy of speech (usage) to code Primacy of function to structure Primacy of context to message The interrelations are always essential

Etic and emic

Emic and etic are terms used by some in the social sciences and the behavioral sciences to refer to two different kinds of accounts concerning human behaviour. An "emic" account is a description of behavior or a belief in terms meaningful (consciously or unconsciously) to the actor; that is, an emic account is culture-specific. An "etic" account is a description of a behavior or belief by an observer, in terms that can be applied to other cultures; that is, an etic account is supposed to be "culturally neutral (in fact, it is frequently culture-specific to the researchers own culture or academic field).

Communicative units
Speech situation the social occassion on which a speech may occur (e.g. church service, meal) Speech event the communicative activity governed by rules or norms of the use of speech Speech act

Taxonomy of communication
Hymes (1972b) proposes a classificatory grid that can be used to differentiate between particular types of communicative units and, thus, help us discover and describe a local taxonomy of such units (e.g. existing in a particular group under study, a speech community).

SPEAKING
S: P
E

setting physical circumstances scene subjective definition of an occasion participants - speaker/sender/addressor, hearer/receiver/
audience/addressee

A
K I N G

ends - purposes and goals, outcomes act sequence - message form and content key tone, manner instrumentalities: channel (verbal, nonverbal, physical);
forms of speech drawn from the communitys repertoire

norms of interaction and interpretation genre textual categories

Diversity
The ethnography of communication does not assume a closed set of language functions that apply equally to all languages and speech communities; rather, it discovers languagespecific functions of speech and types of speech events or acts.

Applications
Joel Sherzer (1983): Kuna Ways of Speaking the ways of speaking among the Kuna Indians (Panama): medicine, everyday speaking, puberty rites, and gathering house speechmaking. The first monograph to take the ethnography of speaking perspective in analysing a whole range of verbal practices among a group of people.

Case study
Michael Stubbs, 1983: The Sociolinguistic Analysis of Natural Language, Chpt. 3 Analysing Ethnographic Data Topic: classroom talk

Initial observation
Setting: secondary school, English class Teacher to pupils: Right! Fags out please!
No pupils were smoking. The message was intended most probably as opening the communication channels, warning the pupils of the messages to come. How did the pupils know what was meant? Which kind of knowledge did they draw upon?

Contextualisation cues? no it is the position at the beginning of a school lesson, plus the knowledge of a lesson as a type of speech event, and verbal activities/speech acts that typically occur within this event at different stages

Teaching
Teaching: a particular type of speech event Different from other speech events Knowledge of the norms constituting this type of speech event enables pupils to interpret what is said

Case study
Analysis of a sample of tape-recordings and field notes from teacher-pupil interaction Secondary school in Edinburgh pupils aged 12-13 and 16-17 years

Research strategy
Consider specific functions that utterances can serve in the given type of speech event Study data to identify utterances performing these functions How is the script for classroom talk constructed? How are the taken-for-granted stereotypes of teacher and pupil behaviour related to the detailed utterance-by-utterance organization of classroom discourse?

Educational discourse
The teacher has the control over the topic, the relevance or correctness of what the pupils say, when and how much pupils may speak ... There are, however, other types of unequal encounters. Research question: is teachers talk definably different from the styles of other unequal encounters? Which specific properties does it include?

Teacher talk
Teacher talk contains many utterances performing the metacommunicative function of monitoring the working of the communication channels, clarifying and reformulating the language used.

Teacher talk
Frequent occurrence of some speech acts: informing, explaining, defining, questioning, correcting, prompting, ordering, requesting Teaching-specific discourse sequences, e.g.: drills around the class, dictation to the group, group answers

Functions of language
(Jacobson 1960, Hymes 1962) Expressive/emotive (speaker) Directive/conative/persuasive (receiver) Poetic (message form) Contact (psychological, or physical - channel) Metalinguistic (code, meaning) Referential (context)

Language in educational discourse

Particularly relevant functions, focusing back on language itself: metalinguistic (Go and look it up in the dictionary!) contact (Can you hear me?) poetic (What oft was thought, but ner so well expressed) metacommunication on communication itself

Metacommunication
Metacommunication - verbal monitoring of speech situation:
messages about the channels checks whether they are open and working messages that serve communication ticking over smoothly control over who speaks and how much cues for turn-taking checks on message understanding control over the content of acceptable communication

Common metacommunicative expressions

I couldnt get through to him. I managed to get the idea accross. Do you follow me? We do not seem to be on the same wavelength. Im sure he didnt mean what he said. He never says what he means.

Common metacommunicative expressions

How dare you talk to me like that? He likes nothing better than to hear the sound of his own voice. Who are you to talk? Who do you think youre talking to? Dont use that tone of voice with me!

Teachers metacommunicative talk

Now, dont start now, just listen. Yeah, well, come on now, you guys! Eh, wait a minute, lets get the facts. (The teacher claps his hands several times.) Right, right, right, right, right! ... You pair of budgies at the back!

Function: attract/hold attention

Teachers metacommunicative talk

Do you want to say something more at this point? Brenda? ... (Long pause.) Morag? Anything else you can say about it? I could do with a bit of silence. I dont like this chattering away. Look, Id prefer it if you belted up. Whos that shouting or screaming? Eh, some of you are not joining in the studious silence were trying to develop.

Function: controlling the amount of speech

Teachers metacommunicative talk

A very serious what? I didnt catch you. I see. Do you understand, Stevie?

Function: check or confirm understanding

Teachers metacommunicative talk

The rest all seem to disagree with you. Well, what Im trying to say is ... Would you like to sum up what we have said so far, Helen.

Function: summarizing what has been said or read, or the situation reached in a discussion or lesson

Teachers metacommunicative talk

Incarnate that means in the flesh. Well, these are words suggesting disapproval. Whore now you dont want to get too technical about that word is just a girl. Well, Brenda, does that mean anything to you? David, whats the meaning of hurdies?

Function: defining

Teachers metacommunicative talk

I take it you are exaggerating. Thatt a good point. Thats getting nearer it. No, no, we dont want any silly remarks.

Function: editing - commenting on something said by a pupil, implying a criticism or value judgement .

Teachers metacommunicative talk

T: David, whatt the meaning of paramount? P: Important. T: Yes, more than that, all-important.

Function: correcting

Teachers metacommunicative talk

Im not sure what subject to take. You see, were really getting onto the subject now. Now, we were talking about structures and all that. Now, before I ask you to write something about it, well talk about it. Well, thats another big subject.

Function: specifying topic

Multifunctionality

Utterances tend to be multifunctional Sometimes, it is possible to rank the functions in order of importance

Teacher talk
Metacommunicative talk constitutes a high percentage of teacher talk It is highly asymmetrical, in that it is the teacher who uses and is expected to use it When used by a pupil, it is a sign that an atypical situation has arisen

Example: discussion in an English course

Right, as I was saying the subject of the discussion is capital punishment now you dont understand what this means capital punishment is when - a murderer do you know what a murderer is a murderer attracts attention attracts attention, structures discourse specifies topic attracts attention, structures discourse checks pupils understanding defines a term checks pupils understanding

repeats to check understanding

Example: discussion in an English course

P1 T P1 T T T yes if a man kills another man yes ah yes yes he is a murderer then when a murderer is arrested and he has a trial then what happens to him afterwards what happens after that

defines a word

reformulates to check understanding

Example: discussion in an English course

P1 T P1 T P1 T P2 T P2 T P2 T ha has a punishment yes he is punished punished now attracts attention, structures discourse what punishment do you think he should get? prison prison checks or shows own understanding (makes a strangling gesture) a rope corects pupils language a rope around his neck yes shows attention, evaluates message and hang him and hang him checks or shows own understanding so ah weve got two different summarises ideas here

A final phase in a discussion in an English class aged 16-17 years

T2:

it has no more effect

What happened here?

The teacher tries to direct the discussion The pupils use language that has metacommunicative function, normally restricted to the teacher (identify) Teaching situation is more like a genuine discussion Teachers position threatened to some extent Tasks for students: identify - metacommunicative elements in students talk in this episode - verbal symptoms of uneasiness in the teachers talk

Teachers talk: hesitations, false starts, self-corrections, breaking the discussion off abruptly ... Student P4: correcting, evaluating

The systems-management in the classroom talk

Making the interaction go smoothly by the use of metacommunicative devices The expression of values that underlies this:
Asymmetrical power relation: many forms of language that the teacher uses would not be accepted in situations with more equal distribution of rights

Acceptability of monitoring:
What do you mean? an experiment by Garfinkel (1967) showed that hearers were confused when asked this question in casual conversations monitoring of others speech is permitted only if some specific relations hold between speakers. Explicit metacomments on anyones speech are heared as evaluative.

Monitoring
The right to make repeated and unmitigated statements about an interlocutors speech, or ask repeated and unmitigated questions about the interlocutors understanding of the speakers talk, is inherent only in a limited number of role relationships of which the paradigm example is teacher-pupil.

Monitoring
Repeated is important here a feature of speech may express no particular social information when present in low proportion, but give significant information if present in high percentages. Right, role relationship the principles explaining verbal behaviour need to use sociological concepts.

The expression of values in teacher talk

The kind of language used by speakers reflects who is talking to whom, and what the point of talk is. By the very way the teacher talks to her pupils, she communicates to them her definition of the situation and the form of pupil-teacher relationship which she considers appropriate. This is how the social order in the classroom can be studied through the language used. The social order is taught implicitely through exposure to teacher talk. It defines the conception of what teaching is, in the given community.

Adults monitoring of childrens language other cases

Radio phone-in programmes - examples:
Astrologer to a twelve-year-old: Thats a nice question. I think thats a really nice question. Government spokesman about an upcoming question from a nine-year-old: OK, Susan, lets have it. Questions from adults were not commented on in this way.

Case study

Deborah Schiffrin (1994): Questions as speech acts in interviews (Chpt. 5)

Questions in interviews
Speech act within a speech event Two types of interviews:
at a librarys reference desk (a librarian who makes special materials available to the public) sociolinguistic research interview

Interview
A type of speech event that is getting more and more widespread; interviewing became a powerful force in the modern society Areas in which interviews are conducted: education, marketing, psychology, human resources department (employment), medicine, mass media ...

SPEAKING reference vs. research interview

Setting Participants
Ends complementary both lack info both give info Act sequence Opened by either Interviewer: makes query Interviewee: requests clarification Interviewer: provides clarification Interviewee: resolves query Recycles Rearranges Range of acts: narrow Closure by both depends on resolution of query Closure is final opened by interviewer interviewer: requests info interviewee: provides info both request clarification both provide clarification recycles rearranges range of acts: varies - partially controlled by interviewer closure by either depends on time constraints closure is temporary

interviewees: interviewer: interviewee:

workplace library user librarian overt

home researcher researched overt/covert some complementary interviewer lacks info interviewee gives info

 Key Instrumentalities
Norms Genre

narrow range verbal/nonverbal; physical materials interaction is based on need for information narrow range

medium range verbal, maybe physical materials interaction is based on need for information narrow range

Library
Goals are mutually known and the specific goals are all subordinate to the main goal of fulfilling the users need User has a need and Librarian can fulfill it User wants to get and L wants to provide information Speech acts are likely to occur in which U makes the need known and L draws upon her abilities to fulfill it

Library
(1) L opens encounter
(1) L: May I help you? (2) U: Sure. (3) U: Um I dont find an indication in the card catalog of which branch the book is to be found,= (4) L: Uh huh. (5) U: what do I do next.

Library
(2) L opens encounter
(1) L: May I help you? (2) U: Yes. (3) U: I am looking for ... Fanny Mae, and Fanny Mac? (4) U: And Freddie Mac, regulations. Federal banks. (5) L: Okay.

Library
(3) L opens encounter
(1) L: Can I help you? (2) U: Yeh maybe. (3) U: I am uh- Ive been working up in New York City in the theater doing acting and stage managing and one thing and another. (4) U: And I am looking to try and get over to public relations which is why Im down here. (5) L: Okay.

 Are the openings Can I help you/May I help youoffers or also questions? Developments from speech act theory: offers are frequently performed by stating or checking preparatory conditions for the predicated action stating that, or questioning whether H wants X (do you want a piece of candy?), or whether S is able to do X (Can I help you?) If not sure that the conditions are met, S reduces uncertainty by asking.

Responses to May I help you?

Yes. Sure. Yeh maybe. The last one suggests that U brings a general notion of which kind of help can be reasonably expected from a librarian, and compares his particular needs with what he thinks L can provide. This answer anticipates an untypical query. At any case, the response shows that he interprets the question as a query about Ls ability to provide help.