The Changing Social Organisation of Crime and Criminals in Jamaica

Anthony Harriott

Introduction

Introduction
Mikhailas part

While most theorists focus on changes in crime rates, the poorer socio-economic groups and reasons crimes are associated with them, Harriott focuses on analysing and over viewing the changing social organization of crime and criminals from the 1970s and its sources.

Introduction
It is argued that radical changes in the social organization of crime and criminals have occurred over the last 25 years. Changes reflect shift from property to violent crimes. Changes are viewed as adaptations to economic crises and a development of an economy which is regulated by violence and threat.

Method
He uses official documents, statistics of police recorded crime, interviews with criminals and observation. An amalgamation of these types of data collection methods provides higher validity.

Context
There are three stages in the development in criminality: -1st (Colonial era)- Nature and sources of traditional pattern but not much
attention paid to this era. -2nd (1977-1987)- Turning point associated with the relevacneof 3 processes: The Structural adjustment Programme, the accelerated growth of the export trade in cannabis and the resort to organized high intensity political crimes. - 3rd Shift in position of Jamaican gangs international drug trade.

Context
Jamaica has been undergoing an economic crisis which is seen from high levels of unemployment, inflation, indebtedness and a steady devaluation of the currency.

Context
Arunas part

Between 1977/1978 Jamaica entered a structural adjustment program aimed at diversifying the economy and improving its competitiveness in international trade. These strategies include: Attracting foreign investments on the basis on a cheap domestic labour market. High levels of inequality and competitive individualism are associated with high rates of violent crimes The SAP had a profound effect on the labour market. The distinction is often made between a primary and secondary labour market based on skills, with low skills and thus low paying jobs located in the secondary market.

Context
Tourism was the biggest earner in the winning sector. But it has developed on a model that compounds the social problems of the country as the all inclusive try to further concentrate wealth within the sector by excluding and criminalizing its competitors from amongst the poor as hustlers and harassers who constitute a threat to the industry and byt the relatively low wages rates The wage levels within this secondary sector were among the lowest in the region. This scenario resulted not only in increased poverty but also changes in the social character of poverty and in greater inequality. These processes served to worsen the patterns of inequality.

Context
Many of the available jobs were regarded as unprofitable or below the reservation wage of young males in particular. Based on a community survey of unemployed inner city residents , Buchanan reported that some 53 % were uninterested in regular employment as they found hustling or robbery more rewarding. Self employment has tended to be preferred mode of work. Withdrawal from the labour market was thus accompanied by the growth of an already large informal sector and more prevalent resort to deviant adaptive strategies.

Context
A second line of response was the creation of illegal economic opportunities mainly in drug trade. Indeed the rapid development of the informal economy served to stimulate and drive the growth of the drug trade underground and it became a source of foreign exchange for trade in light manufacturing. This accelerated in the mid 1970s and has continued into the 1990s with illegal migration opening up opportunities to criminals and young males. The entry of these criminals into the distribution of hard drugs in turn provided the resources and access to firearms which has helped to transform the character of crime in Jamaica.

Context
This conflict has had a profound effect on the political geography of the urban areas of the country. It resulted in the reinforcement and multiplication of armed politically homogenous communities which are militantly hostile to opposing parties and highly centralized in their mode of competing parties were treated as fifth column and driven from these communities.

Structure of Crime.
Charnacess part

Structure of Crime
There seems to be a decline in crime in Jamaica over the period 1977-1933. This is however due to the fact that there has been a shift in arrests, with there being more for violent crimes than property crimes. Previously property crimes up until the 1970s made up a greater proportion of crime in Jamaica (and generally the Caribbean) than violent crime. This was only disrupted during the political war of 19761980.

Structure of Crime
The Property crime ratio to violent crime started to decrease around the 1980s. From that period blue collar fraud increased from this time by 58% White collar crime also increased Property crime has decreased from 30,315 in 1977 to 14,353 in 1994. Violent crime has increased from 15,893 to 22,394.

Structure of Crime
This change has a lot to do with a shift to illegal modes of adaption to economic crisis. New income generating activities for males in particular in the underground economy, is believed to have caused this increase in violent crime.

Structure of Crime
Murders and shootings in particular increased significantly. A lot of this is thought to be fueled also by an increase in guns which are believed to be channeled partly by political organizations during the political war but continued do to illegal economic activities such as drug trafficking.

Patterns of violent crime

There have also been changes in the pattern of violent crimes. Murders usually used to occur because as crimes of passion or disputes over personal property. It has changed however from emotive interpersonal conflicts to crime related murder with less victims being closely related to their murders.

Patterns of violent crime

For example, in 1983 sexual competition and control, loss/accumulation of face and communal conflicts accounted for 28% of all homicides, while in 1993, this declined t 16% There has been increase in gang related murders from 11% in 1983 to 21% in 1993. This is directly related to turf control to ensure a monopoly in the drug trade.

Patterns of violent crime

Other murders are also social control mechanisms to intimidate members into submission. The majority of victims were young (65%), urban based (70%), male (89%) and un-employed or selfemployed.

Changes in the Social Organisation of Criminals

Anastasias part

Changes in the Social Organisation of Criminals

There has been a significant change in the social organization of crime and criminals as of the mid 1980s.Changes in criminality include: 1. More complex division of work or labour in which gang members have more specialized roles. 2. More complicated organizational networks 3. Internationalization of such networks and role changes in international all narcotics trade 4. Greater differentiation and acceptance or integration within the trade or underground economy.

Changes in the Social Organisation of Criminals

The division of labour in the underground economy or trade has become more complex, showing greater specialization and better organization. This results in stratification among criminals. In the underground economy, specialization occurs at levels: Gang Level: Gangs may have a crime type preference. Depending on the gang, it may be involved in certain crimes be it robbery, drug trafficking, car theft, murder, burglary, robberies etc. Individual Level: Members would be skilled or specialized in certain roles e.g. Drivers etc.

Changes in the Social Organisation of Criminals

This reflects an advanced division of labour, especially in the drug trade. These specializations are fulltime jobs of those in the trade. This has led to differentiation of crime careers. Crime careers are also judged by the members level of commitment and contribution to the crime.

Changes in the Social Organisation of Criminals

They are classified into: Occasional offenders: Unwilling offenders to whom crime is a means of survival. Habituals: They engage in criminal activity though not committed to crime. They are divided into, firstly, persons engaging in crime to sustain legitimate businesses and secondly, persons engaging in serious crime for quick means of accumulation. They tend to be successful criminals. Professionals: Their incomes depend solely on crime, they are most committed to it and rule over large areas in the underground economy.

Changes in the Social Organisation of Criminals

There are safe havens in urban areas where criminality is accepted which has strong interactions between the locals and gangs maintain control and gain protection from the police. New generations have grown up in these communities where morals against criminality is non existent. Differentiation also has resulted in increased integration of women and children into the criminal activities. They are becoming more directly involved, especially in the drug trade, acting as couriers (secret messengers or smugglers) for guns and drugs.

Changes in the Social Organisation of Criminals

Women are also accounting for growing proportions of convicts. (1992 they accounted for 16% of all offenders, an increase from 12% in 1977) Children are also becoming more involved by becoming hitmen and offenders, which contributes to increase in juvenile delinquency. Therefore, change in specialization has shifted from persons developing new skills and networks needed for success of a crime, who would have been involved in that crime, to roles based along age and gender lines.

Changes in the Social Organisation of Criminals

There is variation in the levels of organization of criminal groups. Within the drug trade, norms and rules are developed which allows the leadership to have power which preserves the gang. These groups assets are vast and they provide regular income for their members Jamaican criminal groups now operate on an international level. The internationalization of such groups is driven by the quest for new drug markets.

Changes in the Social Organisation of Criminals

By 1990 Jamaican gangs became a significant player in the drug (cocaine) market. Due to this, deportation has become a measure for combating drug gangs. Tighter integration in the US drug trade has facilitated in the importation of guns, criminal networks and corruption of local and political institutions and Jamaica with its high materialistic culture has made it simpler for drug derived sources to be easily translated into social and political power.

The Embeddedness of Criminality

Jevonnes part

The Embeddedness of Criminality

Criminality is considered embedded when formed in interactions with others in networks of social relations. Networks provide moral support and the practical skills needed. The Garrison community provides a concentrated expression of the problem of criminal embeddedness. Here, the crime organization is superimposed on the political structures, which provide the local narco-political dons with a source of moral authority in these communities. Criminal organizations perform both protective and allocative functions.

The Embeddedness of Criminality

The protective function involves armed defense against encroachments by political opponents and ordinary criminals as well as it functions as control agents within the communities- often providing effective guarantees against predatory criminality. This serves to further morally legitimize the criminal groups. In these communities, violence, even in an offensive mode, may be considered legitimate. Some forms of criminality, especially those involving voluntary transactions have become socially acceptable means of 'survival' and accumulation.

The Embeddedness of Criminality

The embeddedness and the widening gap between legal and social definitions of crime is an important factor conditioning the ineffectiveness of crime control agents of the state. The fear of social sanctions against criminality is negligible, thus the deterent value of judicial sanctions has considerably diminished. Embeddedness, with the consequent criminogenic reputation and stigmatization of the communities, outmigration of the upwardly mobile, and decapitalization, has led to further isolation of the urban poor.

The Embeddedness of Criminality

Criminal embeddedness has its basis in the fairly high level of integration of the underground informal and formal economies at the community level. The underground is a supplier and guarantor of cheap goods and services, thus threats to the criminals are seen as threats to these services and consequently to the local economy. these communities therefore tend to develop defensive strategies designed to protect 'their' criminal benefactors and to frustrate the criminal justice system. These developments are the outcome of criminogenic processes which have long been geminating in Jamaican society and have become fully grown in the last fifteen years.

Group Members
Mikhaila Leid Anastasia Gopee Charnace Martin Jevonne Horne Aruna Mahadaeo