Chapter Goals

Describe the components and functions of a file management system Compare the logical and physical organization of files and directories Explain how secondary storage locations are allocated to files and describe the data structures used to record those allocations

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Chapter Goals (continued)

Describe file manipulation operations, including open, close, read, delete, and undelete operations List access controls that can be applied to files and directories Describe security, backup, recovery, and fault tolerance methods and procedures Compare and contrast storage area networks and network-attached storage
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File Management Systems (FMS)

Collection of system software that manages all aspects of user and program access to secondary storage Usually part of the operating system Translates operations into commands to physical storage devices Implemented in four layers (command layer, file control, storage I/O control, and secondary storage devices)
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Bridges between logical and physical views of secondary storage Allocates secondary storage locations to individual files and directories Includes software modules for device drivers for each storage device or device controller, interrupt handlers, buffers and cache managers
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Logical and Physical Storage Views

Logical view
Collection of files organized within directories and storage volumes

Physical view
Collection of physical storage locations organized as a linear address space

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The file is subdivided into multiple records and each record is composed of multiple fields.
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Logical File Structure

Is independent of the physical device on which it is stored Also includes physical data access considerations, such as sequential access, indexed access, or some other There are also data encoding issues including the data structures and coding methods used to represent individual fields And dont forget encryption and compression
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File Content and Type

FMS supports limited number of file types:
Executable programs (.exe and .dll) Operating system commands (.bat) Textual or unformatted binary data (.txt)

Modern FMSs can define new file types and install utility programs to manipulate them (file association)

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File Types
Normally declared when a file is created and:
Stored within a directory, or Declared through a filename convention

Determine:
Physical organization of data items and data structures within secondary storage Operations that may be performed upon the file Filename restrictions
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Directory Content and Structure

Contains information about files and other directories, typically name, file type, location, size, ownership, access controls, and time stamps Old MS-DOS used 8.3 naming convention Newer NTFS allows 255 Unicode characters Access controls include List, Read, Modify, Change, Edit, Delete, etc. Time stamps include file creation date, last modified date, when file last read,
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Hierarchical Directory Structure

Directories can contain other directories, creating a tree structure, but cannot be contained within more than one parent Ways that names of access paths can be specified:
Complete path (fully qualified reference) Relative path

Each storage device has a root directory

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Active (working) directory

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Graph Directory Structure

More flexible than hierarchical directory structure
Files and subdirectories can be contained within multiple directories Directory links can form a cycle

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Storage Allocation
Secondary storage devices
The data structures and procedures used to manage secondary storage devices is similar to memory management, except: Large number of storage locations; low frequency of allocation changes

Secondary storage devices are divided into allocation units

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Allocation Units
Smallest number of secondary storage bytes that can be allocated to a file; cannot be smaller than unit of data transfer between storage device and controller (block); often smallest storage size is usually a multiple of block transfer size Assigned/reclaimed by FMS as files and directories are created or expanded/shrink or are deleted Size difficult to change once set
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Allocation Unit Size

Tradeoffs
Efficient use of secondary storage space for files Size of storage allocation data structures Efficiency of storage allocation procedures

Benefit of smaller units:

More efficient use of storage space

Benefit of larger units:

Allow smaller storage allocation data structures
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Storage Allocation Tables

Data structures that record which allocation units are free and which belong to files Format and content vary across FMSs Can contain linked lists in simpler FMSs or indices or other complex data structures in more complex FMSs Examples include bitmaps, tables, linked lists, B+ trees
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Free allocation units are assigned to a hidden system file called SysFree.

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All of a file allocations units are chained together in sequential order by a series of pointers. This is close to an example of a bitmap, such as in FAT.
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B+ Tree (NTFS)
100
<100 30 >=100 125 155 181 etc. 3 5 10 30 38
101 109 120
128 133 140
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Blocking
Logical record grouping within physical records Described by a numeric ratio of logical records to physical records (blocking factor)

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Blocking factor = 4:3

Blocking factor = 2:3

Usually the logical number is a whole multiple of the physical number.

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Buffering
Temporary storage of data as it moves between programs and secondary storage devices
Physical records are stored in the buffer as they are read from secondary storage FMS extracts logical records from buffers and copies them to data area of the application program

Each buffer is the size of one allocation unit Improves I/O performance if enough are used
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Computing Record Location

For a record r, we must compute where it is in the file.
Which allocation records (physical record) do we need? What is offset within that physical record?
Allocation unit offset (Record number - 1) Record size Allocation unit size

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Example
We want to load File3 (from Table 12-1). Allocation units (block size) are 512 bytes; Record size = 55 bytes Table 12-1 tells us that the first allocation unit is unit 5 System loads 512 bytes into buffer and moves first 55 bytes to application program

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Example Continued
Now we want the second record. Where is it? (Pointer 1) x RecordSize / BlockSize = (2-1) x 55 / 512 = 0 remainder 55 So second record is still in this first block but starting at byte 55 (which is in the buffer) What if we want the 37th record? (37-1) x 55 / 512 = 3 remainder 444 (typo in book)
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Example Continued
So since the answer is 3 remainder 444, you need to get the 4th block (because blocks are numbered 0, 1, 2, 3, ) and then start reading from the 444th byte Using Table 12-2, the 4th block is block number 19

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File Manipulation
Exact set of service layer functions varies among FMSs, but typically includes create, copy, move, delete, read, and write Application programs interact directly with FMS through OS service layer Users interact indirectly with FMS through command layer

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File Open and Close Operations

File open
Causes FMS to find the file, verify access privileges, allocate buffers, and update internal table of open files

File close
Causes FMS to flush buffer content to the storage device, release buffers, update file time stamps, and update table of open files
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Delete and Undelete Operations

Delete
Does not immediately remove files; some content remains on secondary storage unit all allocation units have been reassigned and overwritten File content can be visible to intruders

Undelete
Can be used to reconstruct directory and storage allocation table contents
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Access Controls
Granted by file owners and system administrators for reading, writing, and executing files Provide security at the expense of additional FMS overhead

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File Migration, Backup, and Recovery

Provided by most FMSs to protect files against damage or loss

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File Migration (Version Control)

Automatic storage and backup of old file versions Balances storage cost of each file version with anticipated user demand for that version

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Original

Copy that has been updated to reflect new data

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File Backup
Protects against data loss (file content, directory content, and storage allocation tables) Store backup copies on a different storage device in a different physical location Manual or automatic Full or incremental

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Transaction Logging
Automatically records all changes to file content and attributes in a separate storage area; also writes them to the files I/O buffer Provides high degree of protection against data loss due to program or hardware failure Imposes a performance penalty; used only when costs of data loss are high

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File Recovery
Automated and manual components Can search backup logs for copies of lost or damaged files Can perform consistency checking and repair procedures for crashed system or physically damaged storage device

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Disk Scheduling
A disk drive has multiple requests for read or write operations How does the disk scheduler schedule the read/write operations? Various techniques include: FCFS (First Come First Served), SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First), Scan, and Look

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Disk Scheduling
Assume the following disk sector requests:
98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 57 FCFS SSTF Scan C-Scan Look C-Look
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Fault Tolerance
Methods of securing file content against hardware failure
File backup Recovery Transaction logging Mirroring RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks)

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Mirroring
All disk write operations are made concurrently to two different storage devices Provides high degree of protection against data loss with no performance penalty if implemented in hardware Disadvantages
Cost of redundant disk drives Higher cost of disk controllers that implement mirroring
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RAID
Disk storage technique that improves performance and fault tolerance All levels except RAID 1 use data striping
Breaks a unit of data into smaller segments and stores them on multiple disks

Multiple levels can be layered to combine their best features (e.g. RAID 10) Can be implemented in hardware or software
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Storage Consolidation
Overcomes inefficiencies of direct-attached storage (DAS) in multiple-server environments Common approaches
Storage area network (SAN) - an architecture to attach remote computer storage devices to servers such that the devices appear as locally connected Network-attached storage (NAS) in contrast to SAN, uses file-based protocols such as NFS where it is clear the storage is remote
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Storage Consolidation
Storage Area Network (SAN)
High-speed interconnection among general-purpose servers and one or more storage servers Block-oriented access Common in multi-server environments with mainframes or supercomputers (large enterprises) and substantial overlap among server storage needs Expensive to purchase and administer, but avoid costs of duplicate storage and storage administration
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Network-Attached Storage (NAS)

Dedicated to managing one or more file systems Accessed by other servers and clients over a local or wide area network File-oriented access (rather than block-oriented access) Common when geographically dispersed servers need access to a common file system Cheaper to acquire than SAN, but at the price of lower performance
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Storage Consolidation
Most systems use SCSI protocol to connect storage devices to servers To allow SAN extension over IP networks, many use iSCSI or Fibre Channel over IP SANs often use a Fibre Channel fabric technology

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Fibre Channel
Three major Fibre Channel architectures
Point to point Arbitrated loop (similar to Token Ring) Switched fabric (similar to Ethernet but with Fibre Channel switches instead of LAN switches)

Can operate over twisted pair and fiber Throughput speeds from 100 Mbps to 2 Gbps

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Fibre Channel
Five layers
FC0 physical layer FC1 data link (8B/10B) FC2 network layer (core FC protocols) FC3 common services layer (such as RAID) FC4 protocol mapping layer (encapsulates SCSI)

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Example File Systems

FAT (File Allocation Table) FAT16 FAT32 (up through Windows Me) NTFS (New Technology File System, beginning with Windows NT and continuing with Windows 2000, XP, 2003, 2008, Vista, 7) UNIX file system HFS (Hierarchical File System) (MACs and possible UNIX)
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NTFS
Supports
High-speed directory and file operations Ability to handle large disks, files, directories Secure file and disk content Reliability and fault tolerance

NTFS organizes secondary storage as a set of volumes A volume is a partition on a disk

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NTFS
Volumes contain a collection of storage allocation units called clusters Cluster size can be 512, 1024, 2048, or 4096 bytes Cluster size is set up during installation Each cluster is identified by a 64-bit logical cluster number (LCN) A volume can be as large as 4096 x 264 bytes

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NTFS
A volumes master directory is stored in a data structure called the master file table (MFT) MFT contains a sequential set of file records, one for each file on the volume All volume contents are stored as files, including user files, the MFT itself, and other volume management files such as the root directory, storage allocation table, bootstrap program, and bad cluster table
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NTFS
The first 16 MFT entries are reserved for the MFT All subsequent entries numbered 16 and higher store records about user files A file is an object with a collection of attributes such as name, restrictions, security descriptors, and the data itself (essentially a large attribute) Directory contents stored using B+ tree See Burd pages 463-465 for further details
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Summary
File management systems Directory content and structure Storage allocation File manipulation Access controls File migration, backup, and recovery Storage consolidation
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