Designing Instruction to Develop Complex Cognitive Functions

The Foundational Psychological Functions

Conscious awareness Mastery (volitional control) of ones mental activities

Teaching Writing
Written speech lacks of the expressive intonational qualities of oral speech Writing often a massage addressed to no one in particular- confusing to the child Thought or inner speech must be expanded into inelligible writen form Important factor in teaching reading and writing is that instruction should be organised so that these activities are necessay for a goal important to the child.

The Role of Subject-Matter Concepts

The learning of subject matter concepts (scientific concepts) also is important in developing complex mental functions. Learning subject matter concepts differs from learnng spontaneous (every day) concepts, which are learned through experience. Concepts in subject matter domain typically are abstract in that they are removed from the object or event they represent and they form a system.

Designing Instruction to Develop Complex Cognitive Functions (2)

The Role of Peers, The Teachers, and The Learners
Teachers, parents, and mentors attuned to a learner can recognize where he or she is within the zone of proximal development by asking questions and recognizing the learners individual learning style. Thus, the zone of proximal development enables educators and parents to define the learners immediate needs and the shifting developmental status, which allows for what has already been achieved developmentally, and for what the learner will be able to master in the future.

Classroom Applications of Vygotskys Theory

Vygotskys concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) is based on the idea that development is defined both by what a child can do independently and by what the child can do when assisted by an adult or more competent peer (Daniels, 1995; Wertsch, 1991) According to Vygotsky, for the curriculum to be developmentally appropriate, the teacher must plan activities that encompass not only what children are capable of doing on their own but what they can learn with the help of others (Karpov & Haywood, 1998).

Classroom Applications of Vygotskys Theory

Teachers can use information about both levels of Vygotskys zone of proximal development in organizing classroom activities in the following ways:

1. Instruction can be planned to provide practice in the zone of proximal development for individual children or for groups of children. For example, hints and prompts that helped children during the assessment could form the basis of instructional activities.

2. Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at different levels who can help each other learn.

3. Scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976) is a tactic for helping the child in his or her zone of proximal development in which the adult provides hints and prompts at different levels. In scaffolding, the adult does not simplify the task, but the role of the learner is simplified through the graduated intervention of the teacher (Greenfield, 1984, p. 119).

Review of the Theory

Piaget
1. Piagets stages are underpinned by genetics si the theory has an element of nature 2. The child determines their own development by active exploring and discovery learning-> the child consider as little scientist 3. Development of language arises from cognitive development 4. Underlying genetic stages suggest a universal theory of learning to all children in all cultures 5. Teachers have limited role to play

Vygotsky
1. Being a Marxist, Vygotsky fails to mention genetics and takes an extreme nurture stance believing society is crucial in determining development 2. Social factors play an important part in the development of the child, particularly the MKO (More Knowledgeable Other)-> the child consider as a little apprentice 3. The situation is more complex. Social interactions determine language use and language then helps to drive further cognitive development 4. Individual development is far more dependent upon the individual childs social interaction and their culture 5. Teachers and other MKOs are crucial for the child development

Review of the Theory

Criticisms Unlike Piaget, there is no mention of stages but instead an underlying assumption that children function and think in similar ways throughout their life. For example there is no mention of how brain maturation during the early years may alter the ability of children to think in more advanced ways. As we shall see with education, young children seem unable to grasp abstract or hypothetical ideas regardless of the amount of scaffolding provided. This suggests that there are qualitative differences between the thinking of young children and older ones. This provides support for Piaget but questions Vygotskys views. Motivation Vygotsky does not consider the importance of the childs desire to learn. Schaffer (2004) believes emotional factors such as struggles, frustrations caused by failure and the joys of success are all important factors in the level of motivation experienced by the child. Vague Vygotsky did not say what types of social interaction are best for encouraging learning. Social interactions These can sometimes be counter-productive. Not all criticisms are useful or well received! Durkin (1995) points out that often advice from parents can serve to make the child even more determined to do things its own way. Individual differences Some children, regardless of help given by others, still develop at a slower rate, suggesting that other factors, including genetic must be involved.

Conclusion
Four main principles of Vygotskys Theory: 1. Learning and development is a social, collaborative activity 2. The ZPD can serve as a guide for curricular and lesson planning 3. School learning should occur in a meaningful context 4. Relate out of school experience to the childs school experience