Classification of meaning

Lyons classification
Lyons (1981) draws a distinction between two major types of meaning: descriptive meaning and non-descriptive meaning. Descriptive meaning is associated with statements while non-descriptive is associated with other kinds of speech acts. Accordingly, in the following examples, John gets up late. Does John get up late? The first utterance contains descriptive meaning since the proposition contained in it is asserted while the proposition in the second utterance is not asserted, rather it is questioned. Hence it does not express descriptive meaning although both examples contain the same proposition. Why? The answer is that only the first one describes a sitation0.

 Note: The defining property of propositions is that they have a definite truth-value, i.e. they are either true or false. Moreover, Lyons divides non- descriptive meaning into two types: expressive and social meaning. The difference between descriptive meaning and expressive meaning is that the latter, unlike the former, is nonpropositional in character and cannot be explained in terms of truth. For example: - Good Heavens! (said by John: expresses surprise) - John is surprised. Here the first utterance is non-propositional; it cannot be explained in terms of truth (true or false) while the second one is. So, the first contains expressive (non-descriptive) meaning and the second contains descriptive meaning.

 However, social meaning has to do with the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: - Sorry! - Hello! -Good morning! -Cheers! etc. Notes: Expressive meaning is interrelated with social meaning. This is because the structure of language is determined by its use in society, and linguistic expression (self-expression) is largely controlled by social behaviour. (e.g in a party you would express yourself differently than in the class)

 Whereas descriptive meaning may be unique to language, expressive and social meaning certainly are not. They are found in other natural semiotic systems both human and non-human.

Cruses classification
Cruse (2000) follows Lyons(1981) to divide meaning into two basic types: descriptive and non-descriptive. Here, the same definitions given by Lyons apply to them too. Moreover, Cruse provides five criteria to distinguish descriptive meaning from non-descriptive meaning and as follows: 1. Descriptive meaning is propositional: The aspect of meaning which determines the truth-value of a statement (statements can be true or false). 2. Descriptive meaning is referential: It refers to an entity in the external world and guides the hearer to find the referent in the external world. 3. Descriptive meaning is objective: It is displaced in Hockettes terms, i.e. is not tied down to the here-and-now of the current speech situation. Nor is meaning a response to a stimulus.

4. Descriptive meaning is fully conceptualized: It provides the speaker/hearer with concepts by which he can dissect his environment. 5. Descriptive meaning can be exposed: It can be negated or denied. Meaning

descriptive meaning

non-descriptive meaning expressive meaning evoked meaning

Examples: - Gosh! - I am surprised. Propositional: The first sentence does not contain a proposition. It is nonpropositional (cannot be true or false) while the second one describes a situation. Referential: In the second example, we can find the referent to its meaning in the external world Objective: the first is tied down to the here and now while the second can be uttered by any speaker anywhere. Conceptualized: the first does not present a conceptual category to the hearer only an emotional state. Can be exposed: only the second one can be negated or questioned:

2. Non-descriptive meaning: a. Evoked meaning: This type of meaning is associated with dialectal variation and register. examples: If we take the topic of death: Die : neutral Pass away : respectful, formal Go to heavens : formal Kick the bucket: slang Pop off : very disrespectful , vulgar Here, each word belongs to a different register and each evokes a meaning in the hearer. Register has three categories:

 mode of discourse: is the medium of the activity(spoken or written0 Field of discourse : area of discourse. For example doctors use pyrexia instead of fever abdomen instead of belly tonsillitis instead of a sore throat Tenor/style of discourse: is the degree of formality. We can talk about any subject in any style, thus we can be formal, informal, intimate, slang, etc.

Leechs classification
According to Leech (1974), seven types of meaning can be isolated: 1. Conceptual meaning 2. Associative meaning a. connotative b. stylistic c. affective d. reflected e. collective 3. Thematic meaning

 1. Conceptual meaning: This type has been referred to as descriptive or denotative or cognitive, and is seen as the central factor in linguistic communication. According to Leech, conceptual meaning represents the core or dictionary meaning of a word which can be measured in terms of semantic features: + human -Boy + animate _ adult +male

 -girl

+ human + animate - adult - male

2. Associative meaning: This is a summary term which brings together five types of meaning. This type of meaning is above conceptual meaning and is socially/ psychologically acquired. It is also unstable and varies from one community to another and across time and place. It includes 5 types:

 A. Connotative meaning: This type of meaning is the communicative value which an expression has by virtue of what it refers to beyond its conceptual content, or the implicit overtones which a linguistic expression carries over and above its literal meaning. To cite an example from Leech: Woman +human +adult conceptual meaning - male Woman biped having a womb gregarious caringetc.

connotative meaning

Another example could be a word like December whose connotations might be bad weather, dark evenings, long nights, snow, etc. Sometimes it might connote Christmas, or parties.

B. Stylistic Meaning: This type of meaning is termed evoked by Cruse. It denotes the degree of formality found in language use: Domicile (official) Residence (formal) Abode (archaic/poetic) Home (general) Digs (colloquial) Gaft (slang)

They all denote the same conceptual meaning, but differ in degree of formality

C. Affective meaning: This type of meaning is termed expressive by Cruse. It can be expressed by interjections or expletives (words that are inherently expressive or affective). - What a great book! - What an amazing film! - Oh! - huh! D. Reflected meaning: This type of meaning is the consequence of the polysemous nature of words, i.e. their capacity to bear more than one sense. When we use a word in a particular sense, one or more of its other senses is reflected in it. One example is the term nuclear family in the sense of the core family unit (parents and children).

E. Collocative meaning: This type of meaning is the result of the tendency of certain words to occur together, or of the company which a word keeps: The word clear can be found to occur with a number of nouns: - A clear sky - A clear conscience - A clear idea - A clear road Dogs bark Lions/wolves roar Horses neigh.etc.

 In strong tea, the word strong is very different from strong in strong language and a strong man. The two words deep and profound are usually considered as synonymous. Consider: - A deep understanding - A profound understanding A deep well !A profound well

3. Thematic meaning: Thematic meaning refers to what is communicated by the way a message is organized by a speaker or a writer in terms of focus, ordering and emphasis. For example, active voice and passive voice have the same propositional content (therefore the same conceptual meaning), but they are different in their thematic meaning. Note: Thematic meaning can be achieved by three means: 1. Syntactic 2. Intonational 3. Lexical