2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <1> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2

Variable Length Coding

Information entropy
Huffman code vs. arithmetic code
Arithmetic coding
Why CABAC?
Rescaling and integer arithmetic coding
Golomb codes
Binary arithmetic coding
CABAC
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <2> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
The CABAC Framework
Binarization, LPS and MPS
Context modeling
Binary arithmetic coding
Binarization
Context
modeling
Binary
arithmetic
coding
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <3> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Binary Arithmetic Coding
Word-based to Image-based
Q, QM coders
JBIG, JBIG-2 and JPEG-LS
M coder H.264
Three steps:
modeling
statistics-gathering, and
coding

with many sets of probabilities
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <4> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Binary Arithmetic Coding
least probable symbol (LPS) & most probable symbol (MPS)
Binary arithmetic is based on the principal of recursive interval
subdivision.
Suppose that an estimate of the probability p
LPS
in (0,0.5] is given and its
lower bound L and its width R. Based on this, the given interval is sub-
divided into two sub-intervals: R
LPS
=R p
LPS
and the dual interval R
MPS
=R -
R
LPS
.
In a practical implementation, the main bottleneck in terms of
throughput is the multiplication operation required.
Speeding up the required calculation by introducing some
approximations of either the range R or of the probability p
LPS

such that multiplication can be avoided.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <5> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Binary Coding
Binary coding allows a number of
the components of a coder for a
multi-symbol alphabet to be
eliminated. There is no need for the
statistics data structure, since
cumulative frequency counts are
trivially available.
c
0
and c
1
: the frequencies of
symbols zero and one, respectively
One multiplicative operation can be
eliminated in the encoder when the
LPS is transmitted, and one
multiplicative operation avoided in
the decoder for the MPS and two for
the LPS.

+ =
+ =
=
=

) ( ) (
) 1 ( ) (
) or (
) or ( symbol observed th the :
symbol th the to up prob cumulative , ) (
,
..., , 2 , 1 ,
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (
1 0 1
1 0
1
n X
n n n n
n X
n n n n
n n
l n
l
l
n
n n X
l
x F l u l u
x F l u l l
c c d d
c c a n x
a n p x F
LPS MPS
L l a
C. context for the LPS the of occurrence the of prob the :

) 1 (
: symbol LPS the of occurrence the
) 1 (

: symbol MPS the of occurrence the
l subinterva lower the to MPS the Map
) 1 ( ) (
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (
) 1 ( ) (
) 1 ( ) (
C
LPS
C
LPS
n n
C
LPS
n n n
C
LPS
n n
n n
p
p R R
p R l l
p R R
l l

=
+ =
=
=
MPS
LPS
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <6> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Issues in Word-based Models
An efficient data structure is needed to accumulate
frequency counts for a large alphabet.
Multiple coding contexts are necessary, for tokens,
characters, and lengths, for both words and nonwords.
Here, a coding context is a conditioning class on which
the probability distribution for the next symbol is based.
An escape mechanism is required to switch from one
coding context to another.
Data structures must be resizable because there is no a
priori bound on alphabet size.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <7> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
The Models
The word-based model uses six contexts:
a zero-order context for words,
a zero-order context for nonwords (sequences of spaces and
punctuation),
a zero-order character context for spelling out new words,
a zero-order character context for spelling out new nonwords,
and
contexts for specifying the lengths of words and of nonwords.

2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <8> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
The Statistics Module
Managing the data structure that records
cumulative symbol frequencies.
Encode a symbol s in context C
l
C,s,
h
C,s
and t
C:
the cumulative frequency counts in context C
of symbols respectively prior to and including s, according to
some symbol ordering, and t
C
is the total frequency of all
symbols recorded in context C.

2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <9> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Performing the Arithmetic
arithmetic_encode(l, h, t): which encodes a symbol implicitly
assumed to have occurred h - l times out of a total of t, and which
is allocated the probability range [l/t, h/t).
[L, L + R), L and R: the current lower bound and range of the
coding interval
L and R: b-bit integers; L is initially 0, and takes on values
between 0 and [2
b
- 2
b-2
);

R is initially 2
b-1
,

and takes on values
between 2
b-2
+ 1

and 2
b-1
.
Renormalization: To minimize loss of compression effectiveness
due to imprecise division of code space, R should be kept as large
as possible.
This is done by maintaining R in the interval 2
b-2
< R s 2
b-1
prior
to each coding step, and making sure that t < 2
f
, with f s b - 2.
0
B=2
b
-1
B
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <10> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
The Q-Coder
Q-Coder is the benchmark
The Q-Coder combines probability estimation and renormalization in
a particularly elegant manner, and implements all operations as table
lookups.
QM Coder: Assume that R
(n)
has the value close to one, rescale if not




The probability for context C is updated each time a rescaling take place
It may happen that the symbol assigned to LPS actually occurs more often than
the symbol assigned to MPS. The condition is detected and the assignments are
reversed when

C
LPS
n
n n
p R
l l
=
=

1

: MPS For
) (
) 1 ( ) (
C
LPS
p
C
LPS
n C
LPS
p R p >
) (
C
LPS
n
C
LPS
n n
p R
p l l
=
=

) (
) 1 ( ) (

) 1 (
: LPS For
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <11> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Caveat !
Arithmetic Coding Revisited, ACM Trans on Information Systems, 1998
For binary alphabets, if there is only one state and if the
symbols are independent and can be aggregated into runs,
then Golomb or other similar codes should be used.
For multi-symbol alphabets in which the MPS is
relatively infrequent, the error bounds on minimum-
redundancy (Huffman) coding are such that the
compression loss compared to arithmetic coding is very
small.
If static or semi-static coding (that is, with fixed
probabilities) is to be used with such an alphabet, a
Huffman coder will operate several times faster than the
best arithmetic coding implementations, using very little
memory.


2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <12> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
CABAC
Binarization
Huffman tree
unary, truncated unary, k
th
order exp-Golomb, and fixed-
length codes
Context modeling
Adaptive probability models
Binary arithmetic coding: M coder
Table-based BAC
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <13> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
QM-coder: fast, multiplication-free variants of
binary arithmetic coder, used in JBIG-2, JPEG-
LS, and JPEG-2000
Goal(M Coder) : design a variation with lower
computational complexity of 10% than QM and
20% than Standard-AC, for the total decoder
execution time at medium bitrate
Background & Goal
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <14> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
An Example
A given non-binary value syntax element is uniquely mapped to a binary sequence,
a so-called bin string.
3 of mb_type (macroblock type P_88) is coded by 001
The symbol probability p(3) = the product of p
(C0)
(0), p
(C1)
(0), and p
(C2)
(1),
where C
0
, C
1
, and C
2
are denote the binary probability models of the internal nodes.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <15> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Why Binarization?
Adaptive m-ary binary arithmetic coding (m > 2) is in general
requiring at least two multiplication for each symbol to encode as
well as a number of fairly operations to perform the probability
update.
Fast and multiplication-free variants of binary arithmetic coding.
Since the probability of symbols with larger bin strings is typically
very low, the computation overhead is fairly small and can be easily
compensated by using a fast binary coding engine.
Binarization enables context modeling on sub-symbol level. For
the most frequently observed bins, conditional probability can be
used, while less frequently observed bins can be treaded using a
joint, typically zero-order probability model.
Independent or
memoryless
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <16> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Binarization Schemes
A binary representation for a given non-binary valued syntax element
should be close to a minimum redundancy code.
Instead of Huffman tree, the design of CABAC (mostly) relies the (a
few) basic code trees, whose structure enables a simple on-line
computation of all code words without the need for storing any tables.
Unary code (U) and truncated unary code (TU)
The k
th
order exp-Golomb code (EGk)
The fixed-length code (FL)
In addition, there are binarization schemes based on a concatenation of
these elementary types.
As an exception, there are five specific binary trees selected manually
for the coding of macroblock and sub-macroblock types.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <17> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Unary and Truncated Unary Binarization
unsigned integer valued symbol x > 0, the unary code
word consists of x 1 bits plus a terminating 0 bit.
U: 5 111110

The truncated unary (TU) code is only defined for x with
0 s x s S, where for x < S the code is given by the unary
code, whereas for x = S the terminating 0 bit is
neglected.
S = 9:
6: 1111110
9: 111111111
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <18> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
kth order exp-Golomb Binarization
The prefix part: a unary code corresponding to the value l(x)=
lg(x/2
k
+1)
The suffix part: is computed as the binary representation of
x+2
k
(1-2
l(x)
) using k+l(x) significant bits.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <19> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Fixed-Length Binarization
x, a syntax element, 0 s x s S: the FL codeword of x is
the binary representation of x with a fixed (minimum)
number l
FL
=lgS( of bits.
Typically, FL binarization is applied to syntax elements
with a nearly uniform distribution or to syntax elements,
where each bit in the FL binary representation represents
a specific coding decisions.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <20> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Concatenation Schemes
coded block pattern: Concatenation of
Prefix: 4-bit FL for luminance
Suffix: TU with S = 2 for chrominance
motion vector difference (mvd): truncated unary / k
th
order
exp-Golomb binarization
the unary code is the simplest prefix-free code
permits a fast adaptation of the individual symbol probabilities in
the sub-sequent context modeling
Prefix: TU with S = 9 for |mvd| < 9
Suffix: EG3 for |mvd - 9| if |mvd| > 9
Sign bit
These observations are only accurate for small values of the
absolute motion vector differences and transform coefficient levels.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <21> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Transformed coefficient level
Prefix: TU with S = 14 for |level|
Suffix: EG0 for | level - 14| if |level| > 14
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <22> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
CABAC
Binarization
Huffman tree
unary, truncated unary, k
th
order exp-Golomb, and fixed-
length codes
Context modeling
Adaptive probability models
Binary arithmetic coding
Table-based BAC
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <23> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Context Modeling
To utilize a clean interface between modeling and coding such that
in the modeling stage, a model probability distribution is assigned to the
given symbols, which then,
in the subsequent coding stage, drives the actual coding engine to generate a
sequence of bits as a coded representation of the symbols according to the
model distribution.
F: T C operating on the template T to a related set C={0,,C-1}
of contexts
x, a symbol to be coded
z, an already coded neighboring symbols in T
a conditional probability p(x|F(z)) is estimated by switching between
different probability models
Thus, p(x|F(z)) is estimated on the fly by tracking the actual source statistics.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <24> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Context Modeling (2)
of different conditional probabilities to be estimated for
an alphabet size of m is equal to =C(m-1), it is intuitively
clear that the model cost (learning) is proportional to.
Increases the # of C, there is a point where overfitting of
the model may occur.
In CABAC, only very limited context templates T
consisting of a few neighboring of the current symbol to
encode are employed such that only a small number of
different context models C is used.
Context modeling is restricted to selected bins of the
binarized symbols. As a result, the model cost is
drastically reduced.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <25> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Types of Context Modeling
Four basic design types of context models

1
st
: two neighboring syntax elements in the past of the
current syntax element, where the specific definition of
the kind of neighborhood depends on the syntax element,
e.g.,




2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <26> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Types of Context Modeling
2
nd
: for the syntax elements of mb_type and sub_mb_type.
the values of prior coded bins (b
0
,b
1
,...,b
i-1
) are used for the
choice of a model for a given bin with index i.
These context models
are only used to select
different models for
different internal nodes
of the corresponding
binary trees.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <27> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
3
rd
and 4
th
: applied to residual data only. In contrast to all
other types of context models, both types depend on the
context categories of different block types.
3
rd
: does not rely on past coded data, but on the position in
the scanning path.

4
th
: involves the evaluation of the accumulated number of
encoded (decoded) levels with a specific value prior to the
current level bin to encode (decode).

Significant map
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <28> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
4
th
Type
Non-zero levels are coded in reverse order
Each non-zero coefficient is coded by
abs_m1: |level| 1
Binarized by unary code
One set of context models for the first bit; One set of context models for
all other bits
Sign
5 context models for the first bit of abs_m1
If all levels coded so far are 1 or -1
Context ID = NumT1 (up to 3)
If a level greater than 1 has been coded
Context ID = 4.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <29> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
4
th
Type (2)
5 context models for the remaining bits of abs_m1:
NumLgt1: number of coded levels that are greater than 1
Context ID = 5 + min(4, NumLgt1)
NumLgt1 = 0 Context ID = 5
.
NumLgt1 = 4 Context ID = 9
NumLgt1 = 5 Context ID = 9
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <30> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
4
th
Type (3)
Level Coding Example:
Zigzag scanned result
9 0 -5 3 0 0 -1 0 1 0 0
Reverse order of nonzero abs values
1 1 3 5 9
NumLgt1 (before current level)
0 0 0 1 2
Unary code of (abs level 1)
0 0 110 11110 111111110
Context ID:
0 1 2,5 4,6 4,7

2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <31> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Context Index
The entity of probability
models can be arranged in a
linear fashion called context
index .
Each probability model
related to a given context
index is determined by two
values, a 6-bit probability
state index o

and the (binary)

value =

(o

,=

) for 0 398
represented as 7-bit unsigned
integer.
Syntax elements and associated
range of context indices (0, 398)
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <32> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
0 ~ 72 context indices: related to syntax elements of macroblock,
sub-macroblock, prediction modes of special and temporal as well
as slice-based and macroblock-based control information.
A corresponding context index can be calculated as =
S
+
S.
.

S
: context index offset, the lower value of the range,

S
: context index increment of a given syntax element S.
73 ~ 398 context indices: related to the coding of residual data.
Significant_coeff_flag and last_significant_coeff_flag are conditioned on the
scanning position.
Coded_Block_Pattern: =
S
+
S.
.
Others:=
S
+
S
(ctx_cat) +
S
. Here the context category (ctx_cat) dependent
offset
S
is employed.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <33> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Values of
S
depending on context category and syntax element
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <34> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Flow diagram of the
CABAC encoding scheme
for a block of transform
coefficients.

1. First the coded block flag is
transmitted for the given block of
transform coefficients unless the
coded block pattern or the
macroblock mode indicated that the
regarded block has no nonzero
coefficients.

2. If the coded block flag is nonzero, a
significant map specifying the
position of significant coefficients
is encoded.

3. Finally, the absolute value of the
level as well as the sign is encoded
for each significant transform
coefficient.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <35> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
An Example
C

B
A

ctx_no (C) =
0, for A+B < 2,
1, otherwise
Context determination rule
A=2, B=3 ctx_no(C)=1
C = 4
0 0 0 0 1
(bit, model_no.): (0,1) (0,2) (0,3) (0,3) (1,3)
Binarization
Context selection
Choice of model
depends on
bin_no
Current symbol
Feed into the arithmetic coder
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <36> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Probability Estimation
For CABAC, 64
representative probability
values p
o
in [0.01875, 0.5]
were derived for the LPS by:


LPS probability values and
transition rules for updating
the probability estimation
of each state after
observing a LPS (dashed
lines in left direction) and a
MPS (solid lines in right
direction).
5 . 0 and )
5 . 0
01875 . 0
(
63 ..., , 1 all for
0
63 / 1
1
= =
= =

p
p p
o
o o
o o
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <37> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Both the chosen scaling factor 0.95 and the cardinality N = 64 of
the set probabilities represent a good compromise between the
desire for fast adaptation ( 0, small N) and sufficiently stable
and accurate estimate ( 1, large N).
As a result of this design, each context model in CABAC can be
completely determined by two parameters: its current estimate of the
LPS probability and its value of MPS being either 0 or 1.
For a given probability state, the update depends on the state index
and the value of the encoded symbol identified either as a LPS or a
MPS. (o, =) 6 + 1 bits, 128 values totally.
The derivation of the transition rules for the LPS probability is
based on the following relation between a given LPS probability p
old

and its updated counterpart p
new
:
statistics:
c
LPS
/(c
LPS
+c
MPS
)
But
c
MPS
+1
c
LPS
+1
1-o(1-p
old
)
TransStateLPS
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <38> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
CABAC
Binarization
Huffman tree
unary, truncated unary, k
th
order exp-Golomb, and fixed-
length codes
Context modeling
Adaptive probability models
Binary arithmetic coding: M coder
Table-based BAC
C
LPS
n n
C
LPS
n n n
C
LPS
n n
n n
p R R
p R l l
p R R
l l
) 1 ( ) (
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (
) 1 ( ) (
) 1 ( ) (

) 1 (
: symbol LPS the of occurrence the
) 1 (

: symbol MPS the of occurrence the

=
+ =
=
=
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <39> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
M Coder
Modulo coder (M coder): project both the legal range [R
min
, R
max
)
of interval width R and the probability range with the LPS onto a
small set of representatives Q={Q
0
,...,Q
K-1
} and P={p
0
,...,p
N-1
},
respectively.
So, the multiplication can be approximated by using a table of K
N pre-computed product values Q
k
p
n
, 0 s k s K-1 and 0 s n s
N-1.
K= 4 (quantized range values) together with N=64 (LPS related
probability values)
Another distinct feature: bypass coding mode (assumed to be
uniformly distributed)
2/3
1/3
5/6
1/6
1/2
1/2 1/2 1/2
1/2
1/2
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <40> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Conditions for M Coder
1. A renormalization strategy is applied to R such that R is forced to stay
within the interval [2
b-2
, 2
b-1
) for a given b-bit implementation.
2. The lower bound of the LPS related probability is given by p
min
> 2
-(b-2)

to prevent underflow.
3. The probability estimator is realized by a Markov chain, which allows
a table-driven implementation of the adaptive probability estimation.
Assume that the LPS related probabilities are monotonically
decreasing with increasing state index n, i.e., 0.5 = p
0
> ... > p
n
> ...
> p
N-1
=

p
min

The state transition rules are given by at most two tables
TransStateLPS and TransStateMPS each having N entries and
pointing to the next state for a given entry of a state n with 0 s n s
N-1 and for a observation of a bit identified either as a LPS or MPS,
respectively.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <41> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Conditions for M Coder (2)
4. The legal range interval [R
min
, R
max
) = [2
b-2
, 2
b-1
)
induced by the renormalization strategy is uniformly
quantized into K = 2
k
cells, where 1 s k s (b-2) and the
cells are indexed according to their increasing
reconstruction values Q
0
< ... < Q
k
< ... < Q
N-1
.


Let TabRangeLPS denote the 2-D table containing the K N
product values Q
k
p
n
= TabRangeLPS[n, k].



2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <42> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Table-based Binary Arithmetic Coding
two sub-engines: regular
coding and bypass coding

Interval sub-division in
regular coding mode: The
internal state of the arithmetic
encoding engine is as usual
characterized by two
quantities: the current interval
R and the base L of the
current code interval.
L
R
R
LPS
=R p
LPS

R
MPS

=MPS
Switch LPS-MPS
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <43> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Table-based Binary Arithmetic Coding
First, the current interval R is approximated by a quantized value
Q(R), using an equi-partition of the whole range 2
8
R <2
9
into
four cells. But instead of using the corresponding representative
quantized values Q
0
, Q
1
, Q
2
, and Q
3
. Q(R) is only addressed by its
quantizer index , e.g. = (R>>6) & 3.
Thus, this index and the probability state index are used as entries
in a 2D table TabRangeLPS to determine (approximate) the LPS
related sin-interval range R
LPS
. Here the table TabRangeLPS
contains all 64 4 pre-computed product values p

for 0
63, and 0 3 in 8 bit precision.
update the probability states i, and renormalize the interval

2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <44> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Table-based Binary Arithmetic Coding
Bypass coding mode: To speed up
the encoding/decoding of symbols,
for which R-R
LPS
R
LPS
R/2 is
assumed to hold.
The variable L is doubled before
choosing the lower or upper sub-
interval depending on the value of
the symbol to encode (0 or 1).
In this way, doubling of L and R in
the sub-sequent renormalization in
the bypass is operated with doubled
decision threshold.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <45> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Table-based Binary Arithmetic Coding
Renormalization and carry-over control: A
renormalization operation after interval sub-division is
required whenever the new interval range R no longer
stays with its legal range of [2
8
,2
9
).

2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <46> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Experimental results
CABAC vs. the baseline entropy coding method of H.264/AVC.
zero-order exp-Golomb code: for all syntax elements except the residual
data,
CAVLC: for residual data
Bit-rate savings of 9% to 14% are achieved, where higher gains
are obtained at lower rates.
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <47> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <48> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
TML4 using adaptive codes
"flowergarden", CIF, 30 Hz
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31
QP
b
i
t
r
a
t
e

r
e
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

/

%
Intra/Inter
Intra
Bit-Rate Reduction
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <49> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
Bit-Rate Reduction
TML5 using adaptive codes
"akiyo", CIF, 15 Hz
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31
QP
b
i
t
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Intra/Inter
Intra
2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2 <50> 2012/4/28 VLC 2008 PART 2
12 types of transform coefficient blocks are
classified into five categories.
For each category, a special set of context models is
used for all syntax elements related to residual data.
1. coded_block_pattern
bin indices 0 ~ 3: the context index increment _
CBP
corresponding
to the four 88 luminance blocks,
_
CBP
(C, bin_idx) = ((CBP_Bit(A) != 0) ? 0: 1) + 2((CBP_Bit(B) != 0) ? 0: 1)
indices 4 and 5: related to the two chrominance bins in the
binarized value of coded_block_pattern.

Context Models for Residual Data
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BASIC BLOCK TYPES WITH NUMBER OF COEFFICIENTS AND
ASSOCIATED CONTEXT CATEGORIES
5 categories
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2. Coded Block Flag
Coding of the coded_block_flag utilizes 4 different probability models for
each of the 5 categories, for example, if A and B are of the same type
_
CBFlag
(C) = coded_block_flag(A) + 2 coded_block_flag(B)
If no neighboring block of the same type exists, it is set to 0.
coded_block_flag and significance map: used to indicate the occurrence and
the location of nonzero transform coefficients in a given block.

3. Significant map
up to 15 different probability models are used for both significant_coeff_flag
and last_significant_flag
The choice of the models and the context index increments depend on the
scanning position
_
SIG
(coeff [i]) = _
LAST
(coeff [i] ) = i

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4. Level information
NumT1(i) denote the accumulated number of already encoded/decoded
trailing 1s, and let NumLgt1(i) denote the accumulated number of
encoded/decoded levels with absolute value greater than 1

Processing in reverse
scanning order
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Binary AC an Example
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LPS MPS Switching
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Sufficiency of Binary Coders
B = (B
0
, B
1
, , B
K-1
)