Galvanometer (Detecting presence of small currents (or) voltages.

Bridger Potentiometer
Moving Coil
Current carrying element Rectangular Circular
Use cylinder core Spherical core
The iron core is used to provide a flux path of low reluctance and
therefore to produce strong magnetic field for the coil to move in.
This creases the deflecting torque and hence the sensitivity of the
Galvanometer.

+
| =
=
R R
F
R F
1
| |
|
dt
d
C
|
= emf
Damping is obtained by connecting a low resistance across the
galvanometer terminals.
Eddy current links with magnetic field Electromagnetic torque.
Moving Coil is supported
upper suspension lower suspension
Mirror spring controlling torque
Particular Integral
When we pass steady current through the galvanometer under steady state
conditioning
i
F
dt
d
dt
d
u u
u u
= = = and ; 0 ; 0
2
2
Gi K
dt
d
D
dt
d
J T T T T
d C D j
= + + = + + u
u u
2
2
(or)
(i)
Putting above conditions in (i) we get (ii)
K
Gi
F
= u
Complete solution of D.E. is
F
t m t m
Be Ae PI CF u u + + = + =
2 1
(iii)
u = Complementary function + particular integral

Transient Condition Steady State Condition
Complementary Function

Auxilary equation is




0
2
= + + K Dm Jm
J
KJ D D
m
J
KJ D D
m
2
4
;
2
4
2
2
2
1

=
+
=
Underdamped Motion of a Galvanometer
J
D KJ j D
J
KJ D D
m m
2
4
2
4
,
2 2
2 1

=

=
Real Imaginary
d j m m e o =
2 1
,
| | t b t a e
t
e e u
o
sin cos + =

F d d
t b t a u e e u
o
+ + = = ] sin cos [ e Solution Complete
t -
| | cos ; sin F b F a = =
F d
t
F d d
t
t F e
t F t F e
u | e
u e | e | u
o
o
+ + =
+ + =

] [sin
] sin cos cos sin [
( )
F d
t
J
D
t Fe u | e u + + =
|
.
|

\
|

sin
2
where
KJ D J
D KJ J
D KJ J
rad
J
D KJ
d
d
d
d
4 4
4 4
4 2
sec /
2
4
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
= +
=
=

=
e
e
e
e
(1)
So, we have to remove | and F.
Initial conditions At t = 0; u=0
F
F u | + = sin 0
F
F
u
| = sin
(2) Here 2 unknown constant | and F.
(6)
( ) ( )
d d
t
J
D
d
J
D
t
J
D
t Fe t F e
dt
d
e | e | e
u
+ + +
(
(

=

|
.
|

\
|

cos sin
2
2
2
For finding maximum value for u,

Differentiate and equal if to zero.
At t= 0; [ derivative of constant value u
at t=0; u is constant ]
0 =
dt
du
| e | cos sin
2
0
d
F F
J
D
+ =
(3)
D
D KJ
D
J
D
J
Tan
d
d
2
4 2 2
= =
|
.
|

\
|
=
e
e |
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

D
D KJ
Tan
2
1
4
|
(4)
2
4
2
sin
D KJ
KJ
F
F
F

= = u
|
u
(5)
Substituting (4) and (5) in (1)
(

|
.
|

\
|
+

D
J
t e
D KJ
KJ
d
d
t
J
D
F
e
e u u
2
tan sin
4
2
1
1
2
2
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

+

=

|
.
|

\
|

D
D KJ
J
t D KJ
e
D KJ
KJ
t
J
D
F
2
1
2
2
2
4
tan
2
4
sin
4
2
1 u (7)
From (6)
In underdamped case, e
d
is the angular frequency
d d
f t e 2 =
J
D KJ
f
d
d
2
4
2
1
2
2

= =
t t
e (8)
Time period
2
4
2
2
2 1
D KJ
J
f
T
d d
d

= = = t
e
t
(9)
Undamped Motion of a Galvanometer:
(10)
From (5)
F
F u =
(11)
In this case, there are no damping forces i.e D = 0
But in practical cases, it is not possible.
J
K
J
KJ
d n
=

= =
2
0 4
e e
J
K
f
n
t 2
1
=
(12)
Free period of oscillation is
K
J
f
T
x
t 2
1
0
= =
(13)
From (1)
Final deflection
( )
F d
t
J
D
t Fe u | e u + + =
|
.
|

\
|

sin
2
( )
F x F
t e u e u + + = 90 sin
0
F x F
t u e u + = cos
( ) t
x F
e u u cos 1 =
(14)
( )
0
1
1
90
tan
0
0 4
tan
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

|
o
|
KJ
Critical Damped Motion of a Galvanometer (D
2
= 4KJ)
| | zero is part Imaginary
2
2 1

J
D
m m = =
| |
F
t m
e Bt A u u + + =
1
| |
F
t
J
D
e Bt A u u + + =

2
(15)
Where A and B are constants.
The value of A and B can be found by differentially eq. (15)
| | B e
J
D
e Bt A
dt
d
t
J
D
t
J
D
2 2
2

+
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
u
(16)
* Initial value condition at t = 0; u = 0
From (15); 0 = A + u
F

A = -u
F

* Maximum value condition

From (16)
0 ; 0 = = t
dt
du
( )
F
F
J
D
B
B
J
D
B A
J
D
u
u
2
2
0
2
0
=
+ =
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
Note : The time taken by the
coil to reach its final steady
position is smaller in the case of
critical damping than that for
overdamping.
Solution is
t
J
D
F F F
e t
J
D
2
2

|
.
|

\
|
+ = u u u u
t
J
D
F F
e t
J
D
2
2
1

|
.
|

\
|
+ = u u
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

t
J
D
e
t
J
D
F
2
1 1
2
u u
(17)
Now for critical damping KJ D D
C
2 = =
(18)
Where D
C
= damping constant for critical damping.

Under critical damping conditions
J
K
J
KJ
J
D
x
= = =
2
2
2
e
(19)
For critical damped Galvanometer
( ) | | t C
x
t
F
x
e u u
e
+ =

1 1
(20)
Overdamped Case: D
2
>4KJ
In this case, the roots m
1
and m
2
are real and unequal.
(
(

+
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+ + |
.
|

\
|
1
2
2
1
2
2 2 2
1 2
1
1 2
1
1
o o e o o e
o
o o
o
o o
u u
t t
F
x x
e e
The above expression represents a decaying motion without oscillations
(or) overshoot.

However, this motion is usually slow and is not desirable in indicating
instruments.

The value of
C
D
D
= o
* Intrinsic constants = J, D and K.

* Operational constants = sensitivity, critical damping resistance and the
time period.
relative damping = o
free period = T
0

sensitivity = u
F


(1) Damping ration





(2)



(3)
C
D
D
= o
KJ
D
2
= o
x
J
K
KJ
D
J
D
oe o =
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
2
2
o
o
|
o
o
o
o
o
|
2
2 2
2
2
2
1
tan
1 1
1
1
1
2 4
tan

= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=
D
KJ
D
D KJ
(4)


(5)




(6) Substituting all these values in
o | o | = = cos ; 1 sin
2
2
2 2 2
2
2 2
1
4 2
4
o e e
e o e e
=
= = =

=
x d
x x d
J
D
J
K
J
D KJ
( )
(
(

(
(

+ =
(
(

=

|
.
|

\
|

o
o
e
e
e
u u
| e u u
oe
2
1
2
2
1
tan sin 1
sin
4
2
1
t e
t e
D KJ
KJ
d
t
d
x
F
d
t
J
D
F
x
(

=
2 2
4
2
4
2
D KJ
KJ
D KJ
J
J
K
d
x
e
e

( )
(

=
2 1
2
1 sin sin
1
1
1 o e
o
u u
oe
t e
d
t
F
x
From (5)
(

=
2
1
1
o
e
e
d
x
(7)







(8)


(9)










All the above equations are derived in terms of o, T
0
, u
F
.
2
0
2
0
0
1
1
2
2
o
o
e
e
e
e
t
t
=
= =
= = =
d
x
d
d
x
d
x
d
x
d
d
T
T
T
T
f
f
f
f
T
T
0 0
2 2
T T
x
to t
o oe =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

|
|
.
|

\
|

2 1 2
0
2
2
1 sin 1
2
sin
1
1
1
0
o o
t
o
u u
to
t
T
e
t
T
F
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

|
|
.
|

\
|

d d
t
T
d
F
T
T
t
T
e
T
T
0
1
2
0
sin
2
sin 1
0
t
u u
to
( )
2
0
2
1
2
1
o
t
e
e o e
=
=
T
d
x d
0 =
dt
du
Logarithmic Decrement
The time required for the deflection to reach a maximum value may be obtained by putting
( ) ( ) ( ) { }
(

+ + + =

x
t
d d d
t
d
x
F
x x
e t t e
dt
d
oe | e e | e
e
e
u
u
oe oe
sin cos 0
Differentiating
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( )
( )
( )
o
o
o
o
e
o
o
| e
o e
e
| e
| e oe | e e
| e oe | e e
e
e
u
oe
2 2
1
2
1 1
tan tan
1
tan
1
tan
sin cos
sin cos 0

=
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

+

= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
= +
+ = +
+ + =

t
t
t
t t
t t e
d
d
x
d
d
d x d d
d x d d
t
d
x
F
x
The above equation is the only when where N is an integer. t e N t
d
=
When N = even integer, we get minimum value of deflection, since the initial value t = 0
represents minimum, when N=odd, t corresponds to a maximum value.
The first maximum value of deflection occurs at t
1
for N=1.
We have e
d
t
1
=

t
2
1
1 o e
t
e
t

= =
x
d
t
Substituting this value in

* In place of u= u
1
and t=t
1
and e
d
t
1
= t.
( )
(

=
2 1
1
2
1
1 sin sin
1
1
1
1
o e
o
u u
oe
t e
d
t
F
x
(I)
( )
(
(

2 1 1
2
1
1 sin . 1 sin
1
1
1
2
o t
o
u u
o e
t
oe
x
x
e
F
(
(

+ =

2
1
1
1
o
ot
u u e
F
2
1
1
o
ot
u u u

= e
F F
(1)
This equation gives the first overshoot.
* The first minimum deflection occurs at t = t
2
where
d
t
e
t 2
2
=
( )
(
(

2 1 1
2
2
2
1 sin 2 sin
1
1
1
1
2
o t
o
u u
o
t
o
e
F
( )
(
(

2
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
o
o
u
o
t
o
e
F
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
o
to
o
to
u u
u u

=
(
(

=
e
e
F
F
(2)
From (1) and (2); we get
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
log
2
o
ot
u u
u u
u u
u u
o
ot

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

F
F
e
F
F
e
Logarithmic decrement is defined as the Naperian logarithm of the ratio of successive
swings.

Logarithmic decrement

2
1
2
2
1
1
log log
o
ot
u u
u u
u u
u u

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
F
F
e
F
F
e
2
0
1 o =
d
T
T
But
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
0
T
T
T
T
d
d
to
to

From (I)
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

to
e
e
e
u u

to t
u u
t
u u
t
e

to
1
1
2
0
0
1
2
0
sin sin 1
sin
2
sin 1
sin
2
sin 1
0
t e
T
t
e
T
T
T
T
T
t
e
T
T
d
d
x
F
d
t
T
d
F
d d
t
T
d
F
d
d
Damping due to coil circuit resistance:
The damping effect produced by current flowing in the coil is only present when circuit of
the coil is closed.
R = resistance of galvanometer circuit when closed.
= R
g
+ R
e

R
g
= resistance of galvanometer coil,
R
e
= external resistance required for damping.

The voltage induced in the coil by its motion.
i
current eddy
current eddy
( )
( )
dt
d
G e
dt
d
BlNd
diameter
r
d
Bl N
r Bl N
Blv N
Force N e
u
u
e
e
=
=
(

=
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=
=
2 2
2
2
2
2

The current flowing in the circuit due to emf e is

( ) | |
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=
= = =
=
dt
d
R
G
T
dt
d
R
G
G
i BlNd
Bil l i B F d Bil N
T
coil
coil
u
u
u
u
2
0
field radial in 90
sin
distance conductor each on force conductors

dt
d
R
G
R
e
i
u
= =
Torque produced owing to current flowing in the coil
(1)
But (2)
dt
d
D T
circuit coil
u
=
From (1) and (2)
R
G
D
circuit
2
=
e g
R R R where
R
G
D + = =
2
* For critical damping
KJ
G
R
R
G
KJ
R
G
D
KJ e D D
c
2
2
2
2
2
=
=
=
= =
* External series resistance required for critical damping is
g g e
R
KJ
G
R R R = =
2
2
This external resistance required for critical damping is called CDRX
or ECDR, critical damping resistance external.
When ac is passed through the moving coil
Moving coil vibrates upto the frequency of current passing through coil a.c.
This wire passes over a small pulley at the top and is pulled tight by a spring
attached to the pulley
The tension of the spring can be adjusted by twining a milled head attached to
the spring
The loop wire is stretched over two ivory bridge pieces, the distance between
these pieces is adjustable
Moving coil vibration Galvanometer
The moving coil consists of a fine platinum silver wire superded b/w the pieces
of a permanent magnet
This wire passes over a small pulley at the top and is pulled tight by a spring
attached to the pulley
The tension of the spring can be adjusted by twining a milled head attached to
the spring
The loop wire is stretched over two ivory bridge pieces, the distance between
these pieces is adjustable