Sensors and Encoders

By Aaron Williams

Eric Detton
October 4, 2000
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Sensors

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Objectives
Identify commonly used sensor types Where, how and why they are used Latest and greatest capabilities Bottom Line (cost) Where to go to find out more

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Types of Sensors

List obtained from www.plantautomation.com

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Proximity Sensors
Inductive Capacitive Ultrasonic Photoelectric

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Inductive Sensors
How they work
Creates a radio frequency field using an oscillator and a coil. The presence of a metal object changes the field and the sensor is able to detect this.

*Picture compliments of Baumer Electric Ltd.

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Inductive Sensors
Applications
Motor oil packaged on this Conveyor isfilling system. As a on/off switches automatic one-quart bottle moves down Beginconveyor, the container machine cycle the passes an inductive proximity Quality control (sense lids, proper alignment, sensor located at the fill etc.) position. The label on the bottle has a Count, determine direction of distinctive design, printed with metallic inks. The label tells the motion/rotation, positioning proximity sensor the bottle is in position and want be filled. Anytime youready toto sense metal

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Inductive Sensors
Advantages Can detect metal target even through non-metallic barriers Eliminates need for contact Operate in harsh conditions Rapid response time Long life, virtually unlimited operating cycles.

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Inductive Sensors
Limitations Can only detect conductive metal Relatively short range. Usually used for less than 1 sensing distance. May be affected by metal chips collecting on sensor face.

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Inductive Sensors
Things

to be Aware Of

Specified range is for axial approach. If object approaches from the side, range is decreased. Range depends of metal type!!!!
St37 ( Fe ) 1

Aluminium foil ( Al )
Nickel chromium ( V2A ) Mercury ( Hg ) Lead, brass ( Pb, Ms )

1
0.9 0.6 0.5

Aluminium ( solid )
Copper ( Cu )

0.45
0.4

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Inductive Sensors
Current

Specifications

Range: up to 40 mm Switching Frequency: 25 Hz to 3 kHz. Time delay: < 2ms

Repeatability error: < 1% of range

Cost: $25 to $250 (typically just under $100)

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Capacitive Sensors

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Capacitive Sensors
How they work
Uses two plates to form a linear capacitor (hence the name). The amount of energy that can be stored between the plates depends on the material between them. When a material other than air is present, the sensor can detect it.

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Capacitive Sensors
Applications
conveyors robotics leak detection avoid or jam control

As oil pours into this storage tank, semiconductor manufacturing a capacitive proximity sensor near jam protection food processing the top signals the fill valve to close positioning once the tank reaches missing component detection capacity. Another sensor near the parts detection or control bottle filling bottom alerts the filling system if indexing level of the tank becomes too bottle detection the bottlelow. or can lid detection cap thickness monitoring
counting broken or damaged tool detection gaming table chip monitoring missing unit in shipping carton detection bin level in silo detection low paper roll monitoring

liquid level control

volume level control

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Capacitive Sensors
Advantages Can detect just about anything Can detect liquid targets through non-metallic barriers (glass, plastic, etc.) Operate in harsh conditions Quick response time Can detect difference of object, not just presence

Long operational life, with virtually unlimited cycles.

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Capacitive Sensors
Limitations Typically short range (less than 15mm) Affected by varying temperature, humidity and moisture conditions Not as accurate as inductive proximity sensors

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Capacitive Sensors
Things

to be Aware Of

Again, range depends upon direction of approach Range also depends on material Be sure to check for ambient temperature limits

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Capacitive Sensors
Current

Specifications

Range: typically up to 25 mm (can be as high as 150mm!) Switching Frequency: up to 200 Hz Time delay: <=25 ms Repeatability: < 2% of range Cost: $25 - $250 (typically $80-100)

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Ultrasonic Sensors

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Ultrasonic Sensors
How they work
Sends out sound waves above audible frequencies (ultrasonic), and listens for the return. Uses the time delay, and the speed of sound in air to determine distance to object. Also can be used just to see if object is there.

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Ultrasonic Sensors
Different Types
Ultrasonic proximity sensor with analog output stage
Both current and voltage outputs from the sensor are proportional to the distance of the sensor from the target. This allows simple non-contact measurement

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Ultrasonic Sensors
Different Types
Ultrasonic retro-reflective sensor
A fixed machine part is used here as a reflector. The time difference between the emission and the reception of an ultrasonic signal (known as propagation time) is therefore fixed and known. When an object comes within this sensing distance the output is activated

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Ultrasonic Sensors
Different Types
Ultrasonic through beam sensor
These sensors are ideal for applications in which objects follow each other in quick succession. They are also recommended when high switching frequencies are required, up to 200 Hz

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Ultrasonic Sensors
Advantages Can detect more types of objects than other three types of sensors (pretty much anything) Very good for telling distances Longer range than capacitive and inductive sensors Can operate in harsh conditions Quick response time

Long operational life, with virtually unlimited cycles.

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Ultrasonic Sensors
Limitations Have a dead zone close to the face of the sensor cant detect very close objects Cant detect very small objects (detectable size depends on wavelength) (except for really high tech ones 0.076mm!)

Speed depends on material (cotton, sponge, etc. require slower frequencies)

Smooth surfaced objects must be aligned correctly or echo wont return to sensor

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Ultrasonic Sensors
Current

Specifications

Range: 50mm to 11.3m Sampling Frequency: up to 2 kHz (usually about 120 Hz or less, depending on distance and material) Maximum Target Speed: up to 400 in/sec Time delay: 0.5 ms Repeatability: 0.1% of range

Cost: $75 several hundred (typically just over $100)

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Photoelectric Sensors

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How they work

Photoelectric Sensors

A photoelectric proximity switch is one in which the light source and light sensor are housed in the same unit. The sensor picks up the pulse of the LED (light emitting diode), which is usually in either the infrared or visible light range, as it reflects off of the object being sensed.

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Thru-Beam

Photoelectric Sensors
A source unit in one location sends a light beam to a detector unit in another location. An object is detected when it passes between the source unit and the detector unit, interrupting the light beam. The source and detector are housed in one package and placed on the same side of the target objects path. When the object passes by, the source signal is reflected back to the detector by a retro-reflector. The source and detector are housed in one package and placed on the same side of the target objects path. When the object passes by, the source signal is reflected back to the detector off the target object itself. This is a special type of diffuse reflective sensor that includes two detectors. This arrangement allows the sensor to detect targets reliably within a defined range, and to ignore objects just outside of this range. Unlike a standard diffuse reflective sensor, color or reflectivity has minimal effect on the sensing range.

Reflex (RetroReflective) Diffuse Reflective

Background Rejection

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Photoelectric Sensors
Applications (just a few)
Material Handling A sensor can ensure that products move along a conveyor line in an orderly manner. The sensor will stop the In this cookie kitchen, fiber optic operation if a jam occurs.placed in a hot be counted as they move And items can photoelectric sensors are down the line. as the sensors detect oven. As long
motion as Sensors can verify that containers are filled properly, Packaging the trays of cookies move by, the oven stays and have tamper-proof labeled properlyon. If the conveyor stops, seals in place.

the sensors will detect light or dark for too Machine operation Sensors can watch to verify that a machine is long, and the output device will shut down operating properly, materials are present and tooling is not the oven.

broken. Paper Industry Sensors can detect web flaws, web splice, clear web and paper presence, while maintaining high web speeds.

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Photoelectric Sensors
Advantages Much greater sensing range Can tell how far away the object is Fast response time

Typically very accurate (considering sensing range)

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Photoelectric Sensors
Limitations Dont function well in contaminant environments Sometimes too powerful (Excess Gain) Reliability depends on object being sensed (can be too dark, too transparent, etc.) More expensive Require more power to operate

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Photoelectric Sensors
Current

Specifications

Range: up to 130m (typically between 0.5 and 10m) Switching Frequency: up to 1 kHz (typically 20 60 Hz)

Time delay: as low as 0.5 ms (typically 8-50 ms)

Accuracy: as good as 0.5mm or less Cost: very low end - $50, typical - $125-150, very sophisticated = very expensive

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Sensors Summary
Who Sells Them? (Thomas Register lists 120+ vendors)
Rockwell Automation Cutler-Hammer, Sensor Div.

TURCK, Inc.
SICK, Inc. Baumer Electric Ltd.

Electro Corp.
Stedham Electronics Corp. Advance Controls, Inc.

Balluff, Inc.
Altech Corp. Southern Controls, Inc.

Fargo Controls, Inc.

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Sensors Summary
Where to Find out More?
www.theproductfinder.com/sensors/sensor.htm
(good

source for info about how they work and lists of vendors)

www.ch.cutler-hammer.com/training/slfstudy/sensors/welcome.htm
(excellent website for more technical information about various types of sensor and their applications)

http://www.thomasregister.com/
(great source for finding vendors of a specific type of sensor)

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Encoders

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Objectives
Present background and function of encoders Discuss where, when, and why encoders are used Introduce types, models, and current technology of encoders Delineate benefits and limitations Cite references and locations of further information

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Background
A vast number of sensor products exist to detect all types of events. There are sensors to detect the presence of objects, the speed, the size, the structure, the color, the exact dimensions, the location, etc. Once the detection occurs, there is also a wide variety of ways a sensor can communicate, or convert, this information. Analog-to-digital conversion begins with sampling, or measuring the amplitude of the analog waveform at equally spaced discrete instants of time.

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As the signal is sampled the amplitude at each interval is quantized, and the values are mapped into a series of binary digits, or bits. The information is then transmitted as a digital signal to the receiver, where it is decoded and the analog signal reconstituted.

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2 =256

In order for a sampled signal to be stored or transmitted in digital form, each sampled amplitude must be converted to one of a finite number of possible values, or levels. For ease in conversion to binary form, the number of levels is usually a power of 2--that is, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, and so on, depending on the degree of precision required. In the figure, an analog waveform is shown being quantized on an 8-level scale (0 through 7).

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Encoder example An absolute optical encoder has 8

rings, 8 LED sensors, and 8 bit resolution. If the output pattern is 10010110, what is the shafts angular position?
Ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Angle (deg) 180 90 45 22.5 11.25 5.625 2.8125 1.40625 Pattern Value (deg) 1 180 0 0 1 22.5 0 1 5.625 1 2.8125 0

Angular Position = 180 + 22.5 + 5.625 + 2.8125

Total = 210.94

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Methods of Encoding
Absolute Incremental

A wise man once said, Encoding is to convert an analog signal to a digital signal -Ed Red-

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Absolute Encoders
The term absolute defines the type of information that is relayed to the processor. There are only two options available here, either absolute or incremental. The absolute encoder differs from the incremental encoder in that each angular location is represented by a different digital word.

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Absolute Encoders
In the case of the incremental encoder, it is only possible to know your location relative to another location. The absolute encoder solves this problem by making each angular position unique. (An image of an absolute encoder disk is shown to the right.) Each separate location can be represented by a binary number, determined by the sequence of light transmission or blockage as you progress inward to the center.

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Absolute Encoders
Contrary to incremental encoders, absolute encoders supply a clear code (information) in each angular position. This process offers the advantage that even in case of a power failure the actual position will be transmitted to the evaluation electronics. Furthermore, errors of measurement due to missing pulses and cumulative errors are excluded. The primary advantage of the absolute encoder is that the position is not lost in the case of power loss or noise bursts. The largest disadvantage is added complexity and price.

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Absolute Encoders
Top of the Line AstroCODER 150
The only programmable absolute encoder that allows the user to change programs on the fly. Industry leading 680 second scan time virtually eliminates error, allowing for faster machine speeds while maximizing productivity. Built-in scalable resolution displays user defined units between 16 and 4096. Includes resolver based transducers enhancing ruggedness while maintaining absolute position even after loss of power. Accepts inputs from one or two transducers providing independent dual axis control. Position data available in three user selected forms: Serial Digital, Parallel Digital and Analog Voltages. Factory installed Astro data latch reacts to signal from PLC thereby accommodating any predetermined scan rate. Available with Windows or DOS based start-up software

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Incremental Encoders
Like any other position feedback device, the incremental encoder is used to determine rotary or linear position. The term incremental describes the type of information that the encoder sends out, being either incremental or absolute. The encoder provides relative position information. As rotation or linear translation occurs, the incremental encoder sends out one pulse for each set incremental distance of travel. These pulses can be counted to determine the linear or rotary position relative to another position. Motion is quantified by a certain number of pulses.

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Incremental Encoders
Usually, the incremental encoder will come with three channels, referred to as A, B, and Z. A and B are placed 90' out of phase. With these two channels, the processor determines the distance traveled by the number of steps, and the direction traveled by the leading wave form. The third channel is the reference. Usually the Z channel will have only one pulse per revolution or per length of the encoder, so it can be used to determine an actual location, rather than just an incremental number. These encoders can be either magnetic, optical, contacting, or capacitive.

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Incremental Encoders
The disadvantage of the incremental encoder is that it is unable to determine its location upon start-up, but this problem can be overcome by taking the time to do a homing or reference pulse sequence, and then moving the desired amount of steps from there. The added expense and setup time of an absolute encoder should be avoided unless completely necessary. Another benefit of the incremental encoder is the large range of possible sizes and the high degree of compatibility.

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Incremental Functions: Quadrature

Incremental optical encoders generate two data signals that are electrically 90 out of phase with each other, as shown below. The term quadrature refers to this 90 phase relationship. Since each full cycle contains four transitions, or edges, an encoder that generates 2500 cycles/rev, for example, provides 10,000 edges per revolution.

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Quadrature
20+ years ago, the prevalent electronic circuitry of the day was based on "edge detection". The transitions coming from the encoder would act as the "trigger" to cause a count. At each transition, the electronics not only generates a count, but also determines direction of travel so that it knows whether to count up or down. This is done by establishing whether the transition is going high or going low, and what the state of the other signal is. High Low

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Quadrature
However, modern electronics looks not at transitions, but at changes of state. Basically, the user's electronics contains a high-speed clock and constantly samples the states of A and B. When it sees a change, it counts up or down based on the following table, where 0,1 represents the states of A and B, respectively. Instead of waiting for a triggering event from the encoder, the electronics generates its own triggering based on its detection of a state change FROM TO FROM TO from the encoder. A subtle difference, but critical to the operation of modern digital circuitry.

Forward

0,1

1,1

0,1

0,0

1,1
1,0 0,0

1,0
0,0 0,1

1,0
1,0 0,0

1,1
1,1 1,0

Reverse

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Quadrature Pulses
(For the interested reader) Back when people were counting edges, it was often convenient to have the encoder vendor provide an output that not only identified a specific number of edges per cycle (1, 2 or 4), but also gave direction information directly. Pulse output was introduced for this purpose. Pulses differ from square waves in 2 important ways: Pulse widths are of fixed time duration, whereas the width of a square wave ON state is a function of speed. (The distance between pulses is, of course, a function of position.) "Quadrature" has no meaning with pulse output; you get FWD pulses on one line, and REV pulses on another. (Or pulses on one line and direction information on the other.)

Pulse output options were fairly popular at one time, but it's been dwindling for quite a while. With quad decode chips that are available, the requirement has pretty much become obsolete.

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rd A3

Method!?

Although many companies have attempted to develop a new method of encoding, time and again they have returned to the absolute and incremental methods. Until now. A new type of encoder is currently being researched by Gurley Precision Instruments. A Gurley Virtual AbsoluteTM encoder is absolute in essence or effect without being formally recognized as such. (That's what virtual means.) In reality, it is neither an incremental encoder, nor an absolute encoder. It is a whole new kind of encoder based on pseudorandom encoding technology, which has certain details of construction similar to an incremental encoder, and certain kinds of behavior similar to an absolute encoder. Pseudorandom output codes directly from the disc or scale are not especially useful, so they've invented means for decoding those signals into a natural binary format you can use like any other encoder. This decoder (patent pending) stands in place of the quadrature decoder and up/down counter used with an incremental, so total cost need not be much more than an incremental encoder of comparable resolution. Yet it's effectively absolute!

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rd A3

Method!?

A Virtual Absolute encoder uses just cyclic and index tracks, like an incremental encoder. However, the index track is a serial code similar to a bar code instead of just a single line. You do not know position immediately upon start-up, as you do in a conventional absolute, but after a very short travel, in either direction and starting from anywhere, you know exactly where you are. In a rotary VA encoder, this initialization angle is typically about one degree, depending on the encoder's line count; in a linear VA encoder, about 1/2 mm motion is needed. In a sense, from then on the encoder is truly absolute.

A Virtual Absolute Encoder

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Advantages of the Virtual Absolute technology are:

rd A3

Method!?

The initialization distance or angle is a fixed and very small motion, regardless of the starting position or direction of travel. Just "bump" it to find out where you are. The encoder contains inherent built-in-test functions not found in any conventional encoder. It reports not only various encoder malfunctions, but can also help detect system problems such as too high a temperature or excessive speed. The encoder generates the same whole-word information as a conventional absolute, so it is very easy to interface to computers, PLC's, servo controls, etc. With its simpler optics, a rotary VA encoder can be smaller than a conventional absolute of equal resolution. And you can use a linear VA encoder for applications where a suitable conventional absolute linear would be very hard to find. Because of its simpler electronics, reduced parts count, and less critical internal alignments, a VA encoder is inherently more reliable than a conventional absolute. A VA encoder is usually dramatically less expensive than a conventional absolute.

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Principal Types of Encoders

Rotary (77 Companies) Linear (42 Companies) Optical (69 Companies) Magnetic (17 Companies)

List obtained from www.plantautomation.com

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Rotary Encoders

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Rotary Encoders
How they work
Most actuator systems contain some form of rotary motion. Often times, it is necessary to accurately locate the rotary position of that motion. One way of accomplishing this is with a rotary encoder. This device is used to convert a pattern on a rotary disc into an electrical signal which can be processed to determine angular position.

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Rotary Encoders
Rotary encoders can be classified by two different characteristics: 1) technology used to convert rotary position to an electrical signal 2) type of electrical output Several technologies are now used to convert rotary information into an electric signal. The original method was through physical contacts. This created obvious limitations in speed, resolution, and life expectancy. This led to the evolution of optical, magnetic, and capacitive techniques. The two most commonly used encoders today are the optical encoders and the magnetic encoders.

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Rotary Encoders
Applications
The rotary encoders are most often mounted to the back of a motor to determine the shaft position, but they are definitely not limited to this. They can be mounted to rotary positioning tables, screw drives, gearheads, machining tools, or any other application where a rotary actuator exists. Many drives and motion controllers can process common rotary encoder signals. Since the range of rotary encoders is so broad, there is one for almost every application requiring position feedback.

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Rotary Encoders
Current Specifications
Measurement range of up to 360 Contactless : no wear, no friction, high reliability Magnetic : high mechanical ruggedness Temperature range from -40C to +85C Provides absolute position Accuracy range of 1 to 0.05 Digital or analog output Low cost Built-in self-test

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Rotary Encoders
Top of the Line MicroE Systems G1400
FEATURES
Miniature Sensor Package Line Counts from 82K to 2.68B CPR Safe Transmissive Design Broad Alignment Tolerances

APPLICATIONS
Servo Track Writers Head/Media Testers Precision Stage Feedback Grating Period: 5 m Resolution from 76.6 rad to 2.37 nanoradians Signal Period: 2.5 m Power Supply: VDC +/- 5% @100 mA, 12 VDC +/- 5% @1 mA Speed: 1714 rpm

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Linear Encoders

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Linear Encoders
How they work
This device is used to convert linear position information into an electrical output signal. The linear encoder consists of a linear tape scale made up of glass or steel, a light source (e.g. LED, laser), and a photoreceptor. The light source, photoreceptor, and additional scale are usually housed together. This housing either surrounds the tape scale in through beam encoders or resides on one side of the tape scale in reflective linear encoders.

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Linear Encoders
Light is projected through or off the tape scale and is detected by the photoreceptor. The fixed scale modulates the light as the receptor and light source progress. The receptor detects these modulations and converts the input into an electrical output usually in the form of a quadrature signal (shown here). The two channels are always 90' out of phase. The direction of the motion can be determined by the leading channel. The output is the same as that of the incremental encoder.

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Linear Encoders
Top of the Line - GEL 221 Linear Scale IP66 - motor technology

Features Magnetic sensing principle Corrosion resistant 12 mm measuring rod Easy mounting and adjustment 0.01 mm resolution (w/ external edge-evaluation) 200kHz maximum output frequency Temperature range 0...+70C or -20...+85C Supply voltage 5VDC5% or 10...35VDC IP66 protection

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Optical Encoders

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Optical Encoders
How they work
This feedback device is used to detect rotary or linear position and convert it to an electrical output. A light source, usually either an LED or a laser, is projected through thin slits in a rotary disc for rotary encoders, or a thin tape scale for linear. The LED is adequate for most applications, although the laser has found niches in several high precision, high resolution applications. The disk and tape can either be made of covered glass with thin etchings in the cover, or thin metal with etchings through it. Each has appropriate applications. As light is transmitted, a photo receptor on the opposite side of the disc or tape detects the light and converts it to an electrical output. Different optical encoders can create a wide range of signals, (e.g. silicon cell, analog, sinusoidal).

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Optical Encoders
Advantages
Optical encoders offer a higher resolution and accuracy than all other encoders. Some can offer in excess of 1 million counts per Revolution (cpr). Often times the best way to decide what feedback device you should use for your application is to determine what type of information your controller, PLC, smart drive, or other processor that you are using is capable of processing without too much trouble. Frequently many types of feedback will fit your needs, but only a couple will be simple to integrate. Due of the different signal options and versatility of the optical encoder, this is a very popular position feedback device.

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Optical Encoders
Pos. /Description 1 Circlip 2 Washer 3 Spacer 4 Ball bearing 5 Housing 6 LED support 7 LED 8 Spacer ring 9 Codewheel 10 Stator disk 11 Printed circuit 12 Cover 13 Ribbon cable 14 Connector

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Optical Encoders
Top of the Line - S5S single-ended optical shaft encoder Features
Small size

Low cost
Positive finger-latching connector 2-channel quadrature, TTL squarewave outputs 3rd channel index option Tracks from 0 to 100,000 cycles/sec

Ball bearing option tracks to 10,000 RPM

-40 to +100C operating temperature

The S5S single-ended optical shaft encoder is a non-contacting rotary to digital converter. Useful for position feedback or manual interface, the encoder converts real-time shaft angle, speed, and direction into TTL-compatible quadrature outputs with or without index. The encoder utilizes an unbreakable mylar disk, metal shaft & bushing, LED light source, and monolithic electronics. It may operate from a single +5VDC supply.

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Magnetic Encoders

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Magnetic Encoders
How they work
This device is used to convert position information into an electrical output that can be interpreted by a system controller. The two main components of a magnetic encoder are the read head and the magnetic disc. The read head contains a magneto resistive sensor, which is basically an inductor that detects changes in the magnetic flux. The disc is magnetically coded. The magnetic code is interpreted by the sensor as a series of on and off states. One magnetic code is interpreted as a 0 bit value and the next as a 1 bit value. Through this combination the magnetic encoder is able to transmit pulses representing incremental rotary motion.

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Magnetic Encoders
Advantages
The magnetic encoder offers good resolution can operate in a wide variety of conditions requires low power for operation

Disadvantages
they cannot achieve very high speeds

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Magnetic Encoders
Pos. /Description 1 DC-Micromotor 2 Terminals 3 End cap 4 Housing 5 Magnet disk 6 Hall sensor 7 Printed circuit 8 Isolation 9 Cover 10 Ribbon cable 11 Connector

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Who Sells Them? (Thomas Register lists 100+ vendors)

>ACC >ATS >AVG Automation >Astrosystems Automation >Balluff Inc >Baumer Electric Ltd. >Computer Conversions Corp. >Dynamics Reseach Corp. >Eastern Air Devices >Globetron Electronics >Gurley Precision Instruments >MicroE >Motor Technology UK Limited >NC Servo Technology >Omron Electronic Inc. >Ormec Systems Corp. >Parvex Inc. >Quin Systems Ltd. >Southern Power Inc >Space Age Control Inc >Stegmann Inc. >U.S. Digital Corporation

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Where to Find out More?

www.theproductfinder.com/sensors/sensor.htm
(good

source for info about how they work and lists of vendors)

http://www.gpi-encoders.com/
(excellent website for more technical information about various types of encoders and their applications. Also source of VA encoders.)

http://www.microesys.com/
(source of several leading encoders)

http://www.thomasregister.com/
(great source for finding vendors of a specific type of sensor)

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Glossary of Encoder Nomenclature

ACCURACY is a measure of how close the output is to where it should be. It is usually expressed in units of distance, such as 30 arc seconds or 0.0001 inch. If it's expressed as a percent, make sure to state whether it's a percent of full scale (not usually meaningful with a rotary encoder) or a percent of nominal resolution. BIT is an abbreviation for Binary digit; it refers to the smallest element of resolution. CPR can mean either cycles/rev or counts/rev. To avoid confusion, this term should not be used. ERROR is the algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the input. FREQUENCY RESPONSE is the encoder's electronic speed limit, expressed in kilohertz (1 kHz = 1000 Hz = 1000 cycles/sec). For calculations, rotational speed must be in rev/sec (rps = rpm/60); linear speed must be either in/sec or mm/sec, depending on the scale line count.

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Glossary of Encoder Nomenclature

INDEX SIGNAL is a once-per-rev output used to establish a reference or return to a known starting position; also called reference, marker, home, or Z

INTERPOLATION involves an electronic technique for increasing the resolution from the number of optical cycles on the disc or scale to a higher number of quadrature square waves per revolution or per unit length. These square waves can then be quadrature decoded.
MEASURING STEP is the smallest resolution element; it assumes quadrature decode. (see also QUANTUM) PPR (pulses per revolution) Commonly (but mistakenly) used instead of cycles/rev when referring to quadrature square wave output. QUADRATURE refers to the 90-electrical-degree phase relationship between the A and B channels of incremental encoder output.

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Glossary of Encoder Nomenclature

QUADRATURE DECODE (or 4X Decode) refers to the common practice of counting all 4 quadrature states (or square wave transitions) per cycle of quadrature square waves. Thus, an encoder with 1000 cycles/rev, for example, has a resolution of 4000 counts/rev. QUANTIZATION ERROR is inherent in all digital systems; it reflects the fact that you have no knowledge of how close you are to a transition. It is commonly accepted as being equal to 1/2 bit. QUANTUM (plural is quanta) = BIT. It is the smallest resolution element. (quanta and bit are more commonly used with absolute encoders; counts/rev or measuring steps are more common with incremental encoders.) REPEATABILITY is a measure of how close the output is this time to where it was last time, for input motion in the same direction. It's not usually specified explicitly, but it is included in the accuracy figure. (As a rule of thumb, the repeatability is generally around 1/10 the accuracy.)

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Glossary of Encoder Nomenclature

RESOLUTION is the smallest movement detectable by the encoder. It can be expressed in either electrical terms per distance (e.g., 3600 counts/rev or 100 pulses/mm) or in units of distance (e.g., 0.1 or 0.01 mm). SLEW SPEED is the maximum allowable speed from mechanical considerations. It is independent of the maximum speed dictated by frequency response.

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Conversion Factors
ANGULAR MEASURE 1 revolution = 360 = 21,600 minutes = 1,296,000 seconds 2pi radians (rad)

1 = 60 minutes (min) = 3600 seconds (s) 0.0175 rad

1 min = 60 s = 0.0167 0.291 mrad 1 s = 0.0167 min = 0.000278 4.85 rad

1 rad 57.3; 1 mrad 3.48 min; 1 rad 0.206 s

Sometimes the terms "arcminutes" and "arcseconds" are used to differentiate the units of angle from the units of time. If the context makes the meaning clear, the "arc" prefix need not be used. Occasionally, the symbols ' and " are used to indicate arcminutes and arcseconds, respectively. Because they can be confused with feet and inches, they should not be used.

ME 586 - Automation

Conversion Factors
LINEAR MEASURE 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in) = 304.8 millimeters (mm)

1 in = 25.4 mm
0.001 in = 25.4 micrometer (m) 1 meter (m) 3.281 ft 39.37 in

1 mm 0.0394 in
1 m 39.37 in The terms "mil" (= 0.001 in; short for milli-inch) and "micron" (= 1 m) should not be used.

ME 586 - Automation

Conversion Factors
SPEED 1 rev/min (rpm) = 1/60 rev/s (rps)

1 rad/s 57.3 deg/s 0.159 rev/s

1 in/min 0.423 mm/s 1 mm/min 0.000657 in/s

ME 586 - Automation