for Engineers & Scientists Ohanian & Markert

Preliminary Concepts
Physics the study of matter (and/or energy?) Scientific notation:
Earth Radius: Earth Sun distance: Speed of light: Diameter of atom: Diameter of proton: 6.4 x 106 m 1.5 x 1011 m 3.0 x 108 m 1.0 x 10-10 m 2.0 x 10-15 m

When working with scientific figures, round the result in order to match the least precise figure. What to measure? Position, time and mass (well leave electric charges & temperature for later) Ideal particles

Position & Time

Coordinates: needed in order to specify the position of a particle
Establish the origin point Grid lines: rectangular coordinates Two-dimensional grids; three-dimensional grids; ndimensional grids

In order to describe motion, we need the position of the particle, and the time at which it had that position Coordinate grid + array of synchronized timing devices reference frame (position + time)

Units are needed

in order to record measurements of position, time, and mass. The Metric system of units (also called the International System of Units):
Length: the meter Time: the second Mass: the kilogram

Multiples and submultiples

Kilo Mega Giga Tera Peta Exa Zetta 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021 mili micro nano pico femto atto zepto 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15 10-18 10-21

The Unit of Length

Originally, the standard METER was a platinumiridium alloy bar, kept in France. The distance between scratch marks located near both ends of the bar, was defined as a meter. It was chosen so that it would be the 1/107 part of the quarter of the polar circunference of the Earth. Nowadays, the length of the meter is defined in terms of the speed of light; it is the length traveled by a light wave in vacuum in a time interval of 1 / 299,792,458 of a second.

Other prefixes and unit systems

Angstrom = 1 x 10-10 m (Anders Jonas Angstrom, Sweden, 1814-1874) 1 Astronomical Unit = 1.496 x 1011 m (distance from the Earth to the Sun) 1 parsec (pc) = distance at which 1AU subtends an angle of one second of an arc (about 3.26 light years, prove it) 1 light-year = distance that light travels in a year British system of units:
Foot = 0.3048 meters Mile = 5,280 feet = 1,609.38 m Nautical Mile = 1.151 miles or 1852 m Yard = 3 feet = 0.9144 m Inch = 1/12 feet = 2.54 cm Mil = 0.001 inch

Needing help with the parsec numbers?

Parsec: distance corresponding to a

parallax of one second

Parallax: Displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed along two different lines of sight

The Unit of Time

The SECOND was originally defined as 1 / (60x60x24) or 1/86,400 of a mean solar day (one complete rotation of the Earth) Nowadays, the second is defined as the time needed for 9,192 million vibrations of a cesium atom (Cesium clocks are really cool!)

Time Intervals
Age of the Universe Age of the Solar System Age of oldest fossil Age of human species From Sun to Earth From Moon to Earth Sound wave 4.0 x 1017 s 1.4 x 1017 s 1.1 x 1017 s 7.9 x 1012 s 5.0 x 102 s 1.3 x 100 s 3.8 x 10-3 s

The Unit of Mass

The KILOGRAM standard is a cylinder of an alloy composed of platinum and iridium, kept in France. Up until now, we still dont have an atomic standard for mass. Avogadros number: 6.02214 x 1023 atoms (or molecules) per mole, and the atomic mass of a chemical element Common Atomic Masses: 12grams for Carbon, 1g for Hydrogen, 16g for Oxygen Atomic mass unit: 1 u = Mass of a Carbon-12 atom / 12 1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 Kg

Other Units
1 avoirdupois pound = 0.45359 Kg 1 ounce = 1/16 pound = 28.35 g 1 Metric Ton = 103 Kg 1 Ton (1,000 lb) = 907 Kg 1 troy pound = 0.82286 avoirdupois pound 1 troy pound = 12 troy ounces 1 troy ounce = ( 192 / 175 ) * avoirdupois ounce

Derived Units
Base units: the meter, the second, and the kilogram Derived units are constructed by a combination of the base units. Area (meters squared); volume (meters cubed) Density (Kg / meters3) Speed (meters / seg)

Warm-up Exercises
Conversion of Units
Always check unit consistency Ratios of two quantities with identical dimension or units will have no dimensions at all; they are called dimensionless quantities.

Basic trigonometrical functions of the right triangle; law of sines; law of cosines Basic algebra: equation systems, quadratic equations

Lets solve
Page 22, Nos. 13 15 Page 23
Nos. 26 & 27 Nos. 36 38

Page 25, Nos. 68 & 69 And for homework:

Group 1 odd numbers between 70 & 84 Group 2 even numbers between 69 & 83

Just in case.

Chapter 3: Vectors
Displacement of a particle: a change of its position The arrow drawn from an initial point P1 to a final point P2 is called the displacement vector. A displacement vector is defined by its length and direction. Velocity, acceleration, and force are vectors. Length, time, mass, temperature, and energy are scalars.

Operations involving vectors

Vector addition: two displacements carried out in succession, result in a net displacement, which is regarded as the vector sum of the individual displacements. The sum of two vectors is called the resultant of these vectors. Visual technique: triangle or parallelogram. The Commutative Law applies to vector addition The magnitude of the resultant of two vectors Is usually less than the sum of the magnitudes of the vectors. The negative of a given vector A is a vector of the same magnitude, but opposite direction. The subtraction of two vectors A and B is defined as the sum of A and B.

Lets go 3-D
In space, the vector is the diagonal of the box formed. The position vector and other vectors are expressed in terms of unit vectors:
i (used for the x axis) j (used for the y axis) k (used for the z axis)

The magnitude of the unit vectors is (of course) 1. Vectors expressed in terms of unit vectors:
A = 2i + 3j 2k A = (2 ; 3 ; -2)

The Position Vector

Any point in a plane can be specified by two rectangular coordinates x and y, and the displacement vector from the origin to the point. The displacement vector joining the origin to any given point is called the position vector. x and y are the components of the position vector, and they will be represented with Ax and Ay. The addition or subtraction of two vectors can be performed by adding or subtracting their components.

Vector Multiplication
Dot Product: also called the scalar product, is the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle between them. Notation: A . B = |A|*|B|*Cos(A,B) When will it be positive, negative or cero? A . B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz + The dot product of a vector and a unit vector, will give the first vectors component in that direction. Dot product is commutative

Cross Product
Also called the vector product, because the result of this multiplication is another vector. A x B produces another vector:
Perpendicular to A and B With a magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors times the sine of the angle between them

For the direction of the resulting vector, use the righthand rule AxB=-BxA i x i = 0; j x j = 0; k x k = 0 ixj=k;jxk=i;kxi=j

Now, we exercise
Page 88; Section 3.2: 12 to 15 Page 89; Section 3.3: 30 to 36 Page 90; Section 3.4: 47 to 65 Homework: Review problems (pg 91)
Group 1: 66, 68, 70, 74, 76 Group 2: 67, 69, 71, 73, 75 For everyone: 72, 77, 78

END OF SESSION 1 (I wonder if were on schedule or not?)

Motion along a straight line

We will assume that the straight line coincides with the x axis. Therefore, the x coordinate is a function of time x=f(t). Average velocity is defined as the change of position divided by the time interval If we use a x vs t graph, the definition of average velocity is the same as the slope between the two points (t1, x1) and (t2,x2) Are average speed and average velocity the same? Discuss. Can the average velocity be negative? If so, how do we interpret this result? Velocity unit: meters / seg

Chapter 2: Motion
Mechanics: the branch of Physics that studies bodies in motion. Two major divisions:
Kinematics (position, velocity, and acceleration) Dynamics (force)

As a first approach, we will study translational motion of a particle (leaving rotational and internal motions for later). Average speed = total distance traveled / time taken Motion and speed are relative to the frame of reference with respect to which it is calculated.

Instantaneous velocity
Defined from a graphical point of view as the slope of the tangent that touches the plot at a specific time. Can the average velocity be equal to the instantaneous velocity? Discuss. Using a mathematical approach:
v = lim (Dx/Dt)
Dt0

And that takes us to the calculus definition:

v = dx / dt

Acceleration
The average acceleration is defined as the change of velocity divided by the change of time Units : meters / seg2 If a vehicle is speeding up while moving in the negative direction, what happens to its acceleration? And if its slowing down? Instantaneous acceleration is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on the plot of velocity vs. time. It is also the first derivative of the velocity, hence: a = (d/dt)(dx/dt) = d2x/dt2
a = (v2 v1) / (t2 t1)

Motion with constant acceleration

Constant acceleration implies a constant slope in the plot of velocity vs. time (feel free to graph this) From the previous graph, we can determine that the acceleration (slope) is:
a = (Vf V0)/t; therefore Vf = V0 + at (Eq. 1)

The average velocity, at a constant acceleration, is the average of two values: initial and final velocity:
v = (Vf + V0)/2; or v = V0 + at/2

More motion (at constant acceleration)

The new position x will be equal to the initial position x0 plus the product of the average velocity multiplied by time:

If we isolate t from Eq. 1 and replace it in Eq. 2, we will find a direct relationship between position and velocity (go ahead, find it): In free fall, the acceleration is a constant usually denoted by g, and it is equal to 9.81 m/s2 Standard gs, terminal velocity
(x x0) = (vf2 v02) /2a (Eq. 3)

x = x0 + vt; therefore, x = x0 + v0t + at2/2 (Eq. 2)

Exercises, exercises, exercises

Solve the challenging ones for:
Speed (pg 58) Average velocity (pg 60) Acceleration (pg 61) Motion with constant acceleration (pg 62) Acceleration of free fall (pg 64) Integration of equations of motion (pg 65)

Ah, homework! Review problems (pg 66)

Group 1: odd numbers between 110 and 120 Group 2: even numbers between 111 and 119 PLUS 119

Ch. 4: Motion in 2D and 3D

Two-dimensional motion consists of two onedimensional motions occurring simultaneously. To describe translational motion of a particle in a plane, we will use an x coordinate and a y coordinate. Average and instantaneous velocity for the x and y components are defined as seen in Chapter 2. And applying Pythagoras, we can obtain the instantaneous speed. Apply the same strategy to define average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration. Remember: velocity and acceleration are vectors, and can be separated into their x and y components.

Projectile Motion
The only acceleration experienced by a body that has been launched, is gravity (vertical acceleration). Therefore, the x component of acceleration is ZERO, and the y component of acceleration is -g (-9.81 m/s2). So we have linear uniform motion for the x axis, and motion with constant acceleration for the y axis.

Uniform Circular Motion

Defined as motion with constant speed along a circular path The velocity vector at any instant is tangent to the path (or to the circle). All the velocity vectors have same magnitude but different direction; therefore, circular motion is accelerated motion. The acceleration vector points inward along the radius, toward the center of the circle (centripetal acceleration). Why?

Exercises
They begin on page 121, as usual practice the exercises with an asterisk (they should be the most challenging ones). And finally, homework:
Review problems, page 127: everyone solves exercises 102 to 105.

Chapter 5: Newtons Laws of Motion

Dynamics: the study of forces and their effects on the motion of bodies Under ideal frictionless conditions, a body in motion will continue to move forever Newtons First Law establishes: In the absence of a net external force, a body at rest remains at rest, and a body in motion continues to move at constant velocity. Inertia: the tendency of a body to continue in its initial state of motion

Considerations for the Law of Inertia

The Law of Inertia is not valid in all reference frames; specifically, in a reference frame that has an accelerated motion relative to another. The reference frames in which the 1st Law is valid, are called inertial reference frames. The velocity of the particle is relative to the reference frame; acceleration is absolute (regardless of the reference frame)

Newtons 2nd Law

Force: any push or pull exerted on a body; such a push (or pull) has magnitude and direction As Sir Isaac would have said: An external force acting on a body, gives it an acceleration that is in the direction of the force and has a magnitude directly proportional to the magnitude of the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body a = F / m and therefore, F = ma

Weight, Contact Force and Normal Force

Mass is an intrinsic property of the body; weight is an extrinsic property of a body (measuring the pull of gravity on it, and gravity depends on location). Gravity requires no perceptible medium for its transmission. Common forces require contact. Contact force: the push that the surface of a body exerts on the other adjacent surface. If the two bodies are solid:
Friction force: sliding surfaces Normal or compression force: perpendicular press between surfaces

Mass and Force

Mass is a measure of the resistance that the body offers to changes in its velocity. Force: a vector applied to a specific mass, that generates acceleration In the International Unit system, the unit of force is the Newton (the force that will give a mass of 1 Kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2 In the British system, the unit of force is the poundforce (lbf), and its equal to 4.482 N. Weight is a force, proportional to the mass of the body being weighed.

Newtons 3rd Law

Quoting Sir Isaac: Whenever a body exerts a force on another body, the latter exerts a force of equal magnitude and opposite direction on the former. Action-reaction forces need not to be normal to the surface Not all two forces of equal magnitudes and opposite directions are an action-reaction pair.

Final relevant concepts

Free-body diagram: the body is presented free from its surrounding environment, and the environment is reduced to the forces it exerts over the body. Tension: the force with which a cable pulls on what is attached to it. The direction of the tension is along the cable. The transmission of the magnitude of the tension without change occurs even if the cable is led around pulleys

Exercises (as usual)

The Problems section begins on page 162. You should practice the exercises marked with the asterisks (the challenging ones). 1st part of homework for week No. 2: Review problems for everyone! (starting on page 168)
Exercises 78 to 81 Exercises 91 to 94

I wonder if were still running late