DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

A systematic study carried out in order to add to the available knowledge using a scientific procedure which is communicable and is known to all concerned for critical review or for further verification.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Basic (Fundamental) v/s Applied Exploratory v/s Explanatory Field v/s Laboratory Theoretical (Inductive) v/s Empirical (Deductive) Qualitative v/s Quantitative Ad-hoc v/s Periodical Short duration v/s Longitudinal (life-cycle) Action Research

Steps in Conducting Research

Identification and Selection of a Problem Formulation of the problem - Introduction to problem and review of literature Objectives (Aims) of Research Hypotheses (to be tested) / Research Questions (to be answered) by the study Research Design Case Study, Survey, Experiment Concepts and their Operationalization

Steps in conducting research

(continued) Scaling techniques / Tests Items of Information (data) to be collected Sources of data - Primary/Secondary Methods of data collection - Observation, Interview, Questionnaire Tool of data collection Observation checklist, Questionnaire, Interview Schedule Pre-testing of the tool of data collection

Steps in conducting research

(continued) Pilot Study Determination of sample size Sampling Procedure Random, Nonrandom Organization of field data collection Processing of data : Coding of data, data entry, validation of data Computer analysis of data - tabulation, statistical analyses Interpretation and writing of report

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. Scientific method achieves this by: (a) experimentation, (b) observation and (c) logical arguments from accepted postulates and combinations of these three in varying proportions.

POSTULATES OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

It relies on Empirical Evidence It utilizes relevant Concepts It is committed to Objective considerations only It has no ethical Bias It results in probabilistic Predictions Its methodology is known to all for critical scrutiny It aims at formulating theories

IDENTIFICATION AND SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM

Origin/Identification: Felt Need or Difficulty Selection: - Utility for Organization / Community - Researchers Interest - Financial support - Practicability

PROBLEM FORMULATION
To state the problem definitely or systematically in precise terms. It includes: - Introduction to the problem - Review of previous studies - Identifying gaps in earlier studies - Need for the present study - Limits of investigation of present study - Objectives of present study - Theoretical frame/model, if any

ILLUSTRATION OF OBJECTIVES
To study the reasons for decline in the sales. To identify the segment of our product. To study the preferences of the consumers. To identify the characteristics of the consumers associated with the choice of particular brand. To recommend changes in product, price, other policies.

OBJECTIVES
SURVEY
1. To study the demand for ready-made garments in a metropolitan city. 2. To study the profile of people who prefer ready-made garments. 3. To study the buying habits of the ready-made garment users. 4. To study the reasons for preference of ready-made garments and the reasons for purchasing it from specific place. 5. To plan marketing strategy for launching a new ready -made garments industry.

OBJECTIVES

EXPERIMENT To study the efficacy of a dye. To study the type of fiber to which the dye suits best. To study the procedure of dying under which dye gives best results. To study the efficacy of a dye when exposed to sunlight and water.

OBJECTIVES
CASE STUDY 1. To study the reasons for decline in sales. 2. To study the reasons for some whole-sale dealers not stocking our product. 3. To study the reasons why retailers do not recommend our products to the customers. 4. To study the reasons for the users shifting from our product to other products.

HYPOTHESES
Definition: A tentative, logical and verifiable statement that is to be verified through the research. General Hypothesis: e.g. Organizations policies have resulted in various marketing problems. Specific Hypothesis: e.g. Low rate of incentives has resulted in lack of interest about our product among the distributors.

HYPOTHESES
1. Ready-made garments are preferred more by younger persons than by the older persons. 2. The rich prefer to purchase branded garments. 3. There is a difference in the preferred place of purchase of ready-made garments among different income groups. 4. Most of the middle and poor class families prefer to purchase ready-made garments from hawkers on pavements. 5. There is a positive correlation between family income and expenditure on ready-made garments. 6. Expenditure on ready-made garments is influenced by the occupation of the person. 7. Females spend more than males on ready-made garments

QUALITIES OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS

Must be conceptually clear Should have empirical referents Must be specific Should be related to available techniques Should be related to the body of theory

Sources of Hypotheses
Science itself Experience Observation General Culture Analogies

ILLUSTRATION OF HYPOTHESES
The serial KSBKBT is more popular among lower educated than among higher educated. Compared to males the females spend more on cosmetics. There is a high positive correlation between economic status and expenditure on readymade garments. The old and young differ in terms of their reasons for using their brand of soap.

ILLUSTRATION OF HYPOTHESES (continued)

The expenditure on soap / shampoo depends more on age and income than on education and occupation. The predictors for probability of a customer being a buyer or non-buyer of TV are place of stay, whether already owns a TV and persons accompanying the customer.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Questions to be answered through research. Examples: - What is the rating of our product? - Who rates our product better? - Who are the users of our product? - Is there any relationship between occupation and expenditure on cosmetics? - What are the best predictors to predict whether a customer is likely to be a buyer?

ROLE OF HYPOTHESES IN RESEARCH

Gives a definite direction to research study Gives focus to the research study Identifies concepts to be used in the study Determines items of information / data to be collected Determines type of research design to be used Determines methods of analysis to be used

CONCEPTS
Definition of concepts: e.g. Absenteeism, Health of Industry, Commitment etc. Operationalization of concepts Variables: Independent, Dependent, Intervening Levels of measurement of variables: - Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio/Absolute Scales and Tests Reliability and Validity of Scales/Tests

SCALING TECHNIQUES
Device to convert qualitative variables into quantitative. Thurstone type scales: The scale is first constructed with the help of judges / experts and then administered to the subjects / respondents. Likert type or Summated Rating scales: The construction and administration of scale can be simultaneous.

THE SCALES
The Method of Paired Comparisons The Method of Equal Appearing Intervals

Summated rating scales

Standardization of Scores
Purpose T-scores Standard Scores Percentile Scores

RELIABILITY
The accuracy with which a score represents the status of an individual in whatever aspect the test measures him.
Time reliability Space reliability Internal consistency reliability

Measurement of Reliability
Item Analysis:
Item to Total correlation Power of Discrimination

Over-all Reliability:
Test-retest Split-half reliability - Spearman-Brown formula Cronbachs Alpha

VALIDITY
Whether the test / scale measures what it purports to measure Type of Validity:
Face validity Content validity External check Predictive validity Construct validity

Sources of data
Primary: Data collected directly from where they originate. e.g. data collected directly from the respondents through interview or by observation or through questionnaire. Secondary: Data collected from the place other than their origin. e.g. data collected from records of students from college, from the records of an Institution, from published reports.

SECONDARY DATA
About groups & Institutions - Studies, Articles, Official statistics, Annual reports. About Individuals - Official records of Institutions. Case Histories - Records of doctors, social workers, lawyers. Advantages: Cheaper, Quick, historical data are found only as secondary source. Limitations: Completeness, Accessibility, Comparability, Reliability, Validity (Varied definitions), Limited statistical analysis.

Methods of data collection

Observation (Non-verbal) Interview (Verbal - Oral) Questionnaire (Verbal - Written)

Forms of data collection

Unstructured Structured

Forms of Data Collection

Responses Stimuli Unsystematic Systematic Impossible

Unstructured Informal Structured

Formal Formal Unstructured Structured

Settings of Data Collection

Responses ... Non-verbal Acts Setting . Observation Informal setting Systematic Formal Unstructured Observation setting Formal Structured setting Experiments Oral Verbal Acts Written Verbal Acts

Conversations Letters, Articles, Biographies Interview Questionnaire Open ended Open ended

Interview precoded

Questionnaire - structured

OBSERVATION
Suitable for studying behaviour / process Suitable for subjects unable to communicate Suitable for lack of knowledge by subjects e.g. area of house, cleanliness etc. Provides data in its original/natural form

WHAT TO OBSERVE
Number Time Actions Reactions Total atmosphere Intensity Frequency of behaviour

LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION
Suitable for small groups only Not universal - can not observe income Subjectivity of observer Attitudes & opinions can not be observed Presence of observer influences subjects Limitation of accessibility by the observer More time consuming

INTERVIEW/QUESTIONNAIRE
Informal v/s Formal Unstructured v/s Structured & Pre-coded Tool is called Interview Schedule/Questionnaire Pre-testing of tool of data collection Instructions to Interviewer/Investigator Training of Investigators Instructions to Respondent Rapport building

GENERAL ASPECTS OF INTERVIEW/QUESTIONNAIRE

Confidentiality of information Instructions to Interviewer Explanation of terms for respondents Layout and printing Short and simple questions Order of questions Which question to be asked in which circumstances (Not applicable questions)

TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Factual Questions Opinion Questions Hypothetical Questions Personal Questions Confidential Questions Embarrassing Questions

QUESTION WORDINGS
Be specific Simple language Short questions No ambiguity No vague words Avoid leading questions No presuming questions

EVALUATING ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Universality / Applicability Time Expenses Subjectivity v/s Objectivity Validity Reliability Standardization v/s Flexibility Follow-up

EVALUATING ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION (Continued)

Specificity Temporal sequence of questions Naturalness v/s Artificiality Confidentiality Control of setting

RESEARCH DESIGN
To translate general scientific model into a practical research operation. To set up the research so as to allow logical conclusions to be drawn. Whether the specific hypotheses can be translated into observable phenomena and whether the research method used will produce the kind of data needed to test the hypotheses. It is this stage of research project that involves such decisions as to whether a Survey, a Qualitative unstructured Observation, or a controlled Experiment is needed.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Case Study Survey Experiment Hybrid designs (combination of various designs)

CASE STUDIES
In-depth study of few selected cases. Useful for exploratory studies/understanding of new / less known phenomena. Suitable for small samples. Qualitative in nature (In-depth). More natural. No formal structured tool of data collection. Questions depend on the case. No statistical analysis of data. More expensive and time consuming. Liable to subjective bias. Data not comparable between cases.

SURVEY
The term survey means to probe with a scrutinizing eye. It involves selection of a problem, statement of objectives, collection of data, processing of data, analysis of data and reporting the results. Types of Surveys: - Ad-hoc v/s Periodical - Exploratory v/s Explanatory

EXPERIMENTS
A design to study the outcome (dependent variable) of a treatment (independent variable) by controlling the effect of other factors (extraneous variables). Broad Typology of Experiments by setting: - Field Experiments - Laboratory Experiments

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

(SOCIAL / BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES)

Before - After design (single sample) Case - Control design (ex-post facto design) Before-After and Experimental-Control groups (classical experimental design) (Cohorts Studies) Double Blind Method Single case experimental design

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

(AGRICULTURAL / MEDICAL EXPERIMENTS)

Completely randomized design Randomized Block design Latin Square design Factorial design

DEFINITION OF MEASUREMENT
Assigning of numerals (numbers) to the objects in such a way that the relation between the numbers reflect the relation between the objects with relation to the characteristic being measured.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Nominal:Unordered categories/classes, e.g. Gender, Mother Tongue, Religion, Colour, Nationality. Ordinal: Categories having hierarchical order, e.g. Education, Rank in class, Caste, Occupational status.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT (Continued)

Interval:Arbitrary numerical scale with no true/absolute zero point on the scale, e.g. Temperature in Centigrade / Fahrenheit, Marks in examination, Attitude scale score. Ratio /Absolute:Numerical scale with true zero point, e.g. Length, Weight, Counting, Clock time.

ROLE OF RESEARCH IN MANAGEMENT Aspects of Management

Marketing Management Human Resource Management Materials Management Financial Management Production Management

Role in Management
Marketing Management
Advertisement Research Customer Research Identification of segment for the product Distributor Research Retail Outlet Research Competitors Research Sales promotion Research Research in development of tools

Role in Management
Human Resource Management
Research relating to human relations Research relating to selection of personnel Research relating to in-service training Research relating to communication strategies Research relating to reconciliation of workers grievances Research relating to trade unions Research in development of tools

Role in Management
Financial Management
Research on risk management Profile of borrowers Study of defaulters Impact of bank rates on borrowing Study of Financial Institutions Study of Agricultural/Industrial/Trade growth and borrowings

Role in Management
Production Management
Product Research (utility/efficacy) Research in production strategies Research in Quality control Raw material research

Role in Management
Materials Management
Inventory Research Suppliers Research Study of cost-effectiveness in Inventory/storage cost/pilferage/wastage etc.