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Definition
Correlation research is a form of analysis in which you correlate one variable with another to determine if there is a relationship between them.
another
e.g. Can height of be used to predict the self esteem of people?
Types of Correlation
Positive Correlation: means that high score in one variable is associated with high score in another variable Negative Correlation: means high score in one variable is associated with low score in another variable.
Surveys Observation Techniques: Mapping Sorting Archives Tactics to analyse the data Multivariate analysis Multiple regression Factor analysis Multidimensional Scaling
General characteristics
Focus on naturally occurring Pattern
Clarify the relationship among a complex set of real world variables that vary with the circumstances or setting being studied and are also likely to affect the dynamics of socio-physical interaction. By variables we mean the range of characteristics( of physical features, of people, of activities, or of meanings) e.g: ways in which two variables A & B may be casually related
B A B
RELATIONSHIP STUDIES
1)
RELATIONSHIP STUDIES: Although all correlational studies seek to discribe relationships among key variables, relationship studies focus more specifically on the nature and predictive power of such relationships. Eg:Oscar Newmans study of public housing in New York city which produce the theory of DIFENSIBLE SPACES
Records of 169 public housing projects managed by the New York City Housing Authority were examined b) Research team conducted an exhaustive investigation of the complex relationship between user demographics and the physical variables of the housing /site design, and incidence of crime c) The emense research made it possible to determine exactly where is the most dangerous areas of buildings are, as well as to compare crime rates of different building types and project layout
a)
Not only this theory of DEFENSIBLE SPACE define a relationship between environmental variable and behavioral consequences, but also offers a predictive capacity that can be articulated as design guidelines, specifically low income housing that incoporates real and symbolic barriers, defined area of influence, and opportunities for surveillance
CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
2) CAUSAL- COMPARATIVE STUDIES:
Causal- comparative studies stake out an intermediate position between the predictive orientation of relationship studies and focus on casuality that characterizes experimental research In causal comparative studies, the researcher select comparable groups of people or comparable physical environments and then collects data on a variety of relevant variables. The causal- comparative design can only ascribe cases in a provisional or hypothetical way. This is because causal- comparative research relies on natural occurring variable, as do all correlational studies To make causal-comparative design persuasive, the researcher must establish the essential comparability of the examples studied. Unfortunately, there are often many obstacles to establishing the equivalence of the examples/groups in naturally occurring circumstances .
Sorting
Archives
SURVEY METHODS
Sampling Stratified random sampling Sample is a part of parent population. Sample is any part of a defined population, which is selected or to be selected for questioning, observation and from which information can be obtained and statistical inferences are drawn or prediction made about entire population. A statistical sample is thus a miniature picture or cross section of the entire group or aggregate from which the sample is taken.
POPULATION
In a statistical population, every member of a group
possesses the same basic and define characteristics but varying in amount of quality from one member to another, for eg. Income tax payers in India.
Deliberate or purposive or judgment or direct sampling. Random/ lottery method Stratified random sampling Systematic sampling Cluster sampling Quota sampling- sample fixed, allotted numbers Note- systematic sampling is one in which every k^th item is selected in a list representing a population or a stratum. The number k is called sampling intervals. K= N/n where k= sampling intervals N= universe size, n= sample size
DATA
Secondary sources
(one to one)
Household survey
a. Comprehensive household survey b. Household survey at the selected samples
Survey questionnaire
Survey is perhaps the most frequently employed tool. It allows the researcher to cover an extensive amount of information across a large number of people in a limited amount of time Questionnaire are drafted through the following procedure. 1. Determine main topic to be covered.(orient ques. towards that.) 2. Chose either open ended or close ended format(as well as categorical, ordinal and interval ratio)
Closed and multiple choice question Q. how often do your parents ask you about your home work? Never 1 1-2 times a week 2 3-4 times a week 3 Nearly every day 4
The main advantage of closed questions are: The respondent is restricted to a finite (and therefore more manageable) set of responses, They are easy and quick to answer, They have response categories that are easy to code, they permit the inclusion of more variables in a research study because the format enables the respondent to answer more questions in the same time required to answer fewer openended questions. Open-ended or free-response questions are not followed by any choices
Q.What are your favourite TV programmes? (Please specify their titles) Q.What do you like most about school? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........................................................
allow respondents to express their ideas spontaneously in their own language, They are less likely to suggest or guide the answer than closed questions because they are free from the format effects associated with closed questions, and They can add new information when there is very little existing information available about a topic.
Phrase question clearly(use short sentences, avoid making multiple query in single question) Q. Do you think it is good idea for children to study geography and
history in primary school?
Avoid using ambiguous wording, employ nonthreatening language Use a logical sequence of topic(start with non challenging and interesting issue but dont place imp. In the end. Use appealing and simple graphics Introduce the survey properly(provide a reason for the survey, provide a description of what a researcher is expected to do. state provisions for keeping individuals responses confidential
Observation
Most important aspect figuring out what to look for Needs to be systematic As it makes possible to establish justified design objectives and simplifies complexities Essential to devise a thorough observation program To get the direct rather than random approach and not to lose its representativeness Critical self-questioning is very essential A great advantage even a simple numbers count can provide a detailed and powerful view of the human ecology of a particular setting
Observation
Range of variables that might be observed Demographic characteristics
study of a day in life of the ledge at Seagram; no. of people in
Specific activities Whytes study of urban plazas (used time-lapse camera to observe behaviour of activity in pedestrian areas) User reactions Mark Fredericksonss study of design juries, with special focus on possibility of gender or minority basis(time-frequency measures and content process categories)
There can be other variables too.
Mapping
To get clear and simplified view of distinct features of an
area
To determine the imageable features of a place To help making design guidelines for that place
observations
Sketching through visual or verbal experience, better when
difference is nil Derivations of certain features that re-occur in all sample maps; establishing distinguished points of the area Eg., Kevin Lynchs study image of the city derivations of five major urban features; path, edge, node, landmark and district
Mapping
Marking out or pointing the different physical features
formulating design guidelines Making aesthetically pleasing features on the way prominent on paper by notifying them Used different stickers as notifications Measurement of distances between two distinct points by odometer Was able to determine major destination points along greenway occur every two miles
Sorting
Highly effective both in research and practice
scale from highly preferred to least preferred) Free sort : sorting in whatever categories suit to respondent (eg., buildings according to functions, styles, etc.) Multiple free sort : sorting can be done as many times as possible
Sorting
Visual exercise for simplifying complexities and
determining difference in priorities and thereby approaches A creative foundation for dialogue between client and architect Ease of expression of motives
Archives
Use of existing database and records
Eg., Oscar Newmans study for defensible spaces He took help of records of New York Housing Authority and also police force databank for demographic data; and thereby correlating them with physical properties of various housing projects Was able to determine exactly where the most dangerous areas of buildings are, and comparison of crime rates in different building types and project layouts
Multiple Regression
This is more complex data analysis, used to describe the
strength and direction of variable relationship . The mathematical equations indicate the amount of variance contributed by each variables.
independent variable. The influence of the independent variable is additive. It is easy adaptability to computer programming when handling voluminous data
Factor Analysis
Depends on interval or ratio data. Instead of using key variables to predict the outcomes of other variables, factor analysis aims to articulate an overall pattern. Variables that share similar patterns are grouped into clusters known as factors.
Factor analysis is a general name denoting a class of Procedures primarily used for data reduction and summarization. Variables are not classified as either dependent or independent. Instead, the whole set of interdependent relationships among variables is examined in order to define a set of common dimensions called Factors.
explain the correlations among a set of variables. e.g. lifestyle statements may be used to measure the psychographic profile of consumers.
To identify a new, smaller set of uncorrelated variables to
replace the original set of correlated variables for subsequent analysis such as Regression or Discriminant Analysis. e.g. psychographic factors may be used as independent variables to explain the difference between loyal and non loyal customers.
Multidimensional Scaling
Offers more flexibility
Uses both nominal data as well as interval or ration data Outcome of the analysis is represented graphically. Its goal is to reveal an underlying pattern or structure
among the variables analyzed, similar to factor analysis, but allowing a greater degree of interpretative flexibility. Results in a graphical plot that locates relationship between all variables spatially. Two variables plotted in close proximity means they represent similar patterns of observations and vice versa.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Applications of the correlational strategy Prediction
Predictor variable (e.g. GPA) Criterion variable to be predicted (e.g. grad school success)
Reliability and validity Calculating correlations in test-retest reliability and concurrent validity
Evaluating theories E.g. Heredity and IQ correlations between twins