Basic Antenna Theory and

Concepts
Transmission Media
Transmission Medium
Physical path between transmitter and receiver
Guided Media
Waves are guided along a solid medium
E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable,
optical fiber
Unguided Media
Provides means of transmission but does not
guide electromagnetic signals
Usually referred to as wireless transmission
E.g., atmosphere, outer space
Unguided media
Transmission and reception are
achieved by means of an antenna
Configurations for wireless transmission
Directional
Omni directional
Wave Propagation?

Channel characteristics vary for different
environments
Allows system designer to predict signal
coverage, achievable data rate, and
compare performance of different
signaling schemes

Antenna
An antenna is an electrical conductor or
system of conductors
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy
into space
Reception - collects electromagnetic energy
from space
In two-way communication, the same
antenna can be used for transmission and
reception
Antenna Definition
An antenna is a circuit element that
provides a transition form a guided
wave on a transmission line to a free
space wave and it provides for the
collection of electromagnetic energy.
Antenna research from
Miller & Beasley, 2002
Antenna Definition-contd
In transmit systems the RF signal is
generated, amplified, modulated and
applied to the antenna
In receive systems the antenna collects
electromagnetic waves that are
cutting through the antenna and
induce alternating currents that are
used by the receiver
Radiation Patterns
Radiation pattern
Graphical representation of radiation properties of
an antenna
Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
Beam width (or half-power beam width)
Measure of directivity of antenna
Reception pattern
Receiving antennas equivalent to radiation
pattern
Reciprocity
An antenna ability to transfer energy form
the atmosphere to its receiver with the same
efficiency with which it transfers energy
from the transmitter into the atmosphere
Antenna characteristics are essentially the
same regardless of whether an antenna is
sending or receiving electromagnetic energy
Polarization
Polarization is the direction of the electric
field and is the same as the physical attitude
of the antenna
A vertical antenna will transmit a vertically
polarized wave
The receive and transmit antennas need to
possess the same polarization
Beamwidth
Beamwidth is the angular
separation of the half-power points
of the radiated pattern
Antenna Gain
Antenna gain
Power output, in a particular direction,
compared to that produced in any direction by
a perfect omnidirectional antenna (isotropic
antenna)
Directional antennas point energy in a
particular direction
Better received signal strength
Less interference to other receivers
More complex antenna
Antenna Gain
Types of Antennas
Isotropic antenna (idealized)
Radiates power equally in all directions
Dipole antennas
Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)
Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi
antenna)
Whip Antenna
Parabolic Reflective Antenna
beamwidth
antenna

A
Power 3dB down
from maximum
point A
Max power
2 dipole
Directional Antenna
Radiated energy is
focused in a specific
direction
Half-wave Dipole (Hertz) Antenna
An antenna having a physical length
that is one-half wavelength of the
applied frequency is called a Hertz
antenna or a half-wave dipole
antenna. Hertz antennas are not found
at frequencies below 2MHz because of
the physical size needed of the antenna
to represent a half-wave
Vertical (Marconi) Antenna
Vertical Antennas are used for
frequencies under 2 MHz. It uses a
conducting path to ground that acts as
wavelength portion the antenna
above the ground. The above ground
structure represents a /4 wavelength
Vertical (Marconi) Antenna contd
Poor grounding conditions of the
earth/soil surrounding the antenna can
result in serious signal attenuation. This
problem is alleviated by installing a
counterpoise
Counterpoise
Counterpoise is a grounding grid
established where the earth grounding
cannot satisfy electrical requirements
for circuit completion. It is designed to
be non-resonant at the operating
frequency
Counterpoise-contd
supports
antenna
radius =
Radio antennas, cell phone antennas,
walkie talkies, etc.
Simple, cheap, easy to make
Generally low gain antennas
Higher gain off axis from the antenna,
low gain on axis (above and below)
Whip Antennas
Low Sensitivity
Low Sensitivity
High Sensitivity
High Sensitivity
Whip Antennas
Parabolic Dish Antenna
Satellite receivers, older Radar systems,
radio telescopes, etc.
Strong, and reasonably easy to
produce, fairly cheap compared to other
antennas with similar gain properties
Low gain behind antenna and off to the
sides, high gain in front of antenna
Very Sensitive
Less Sensitive
Parabolic Dish Antenna
Phased Array Antenna
High gain in a small area, low gain
everywhere else
Consists of multiple antenna elements
arranged in a plane where the
individual elements are wired together
to control directional gain
Allows the antenna to scan a volume
quickly without physically moving array
Phased Array Antenna
Very Sensitive
Less Sensitive
Phased Array Antenna
2 1 1
Constructive Interference
Phased Array Antenna
2 1 1
Destructive Interference (Null)
/2
/2
On-axis sidelobes
Mainlobe
Off-axis sidelobes
Phased Array Antenna
Antenna Array
Antenna array is a group of antennas or antenna
elements arranged to provide the desired directional
characteristics. Generally any combination of elements
can form an array. However, equal elements in a
regular geometry are usually used.


Yagi-Uda Antenna
The Yagi-Uda antenna is a simple
form of a directional antenna based
off of a reflector placed /4 from
the dipole antennas placement.
Complex analysis to define the
radiated patterns are experimental
rather than theoretical calculations
Yagi-Uda Antenna-contd
reflector
dipole
antenna
/4
antenna
2 dipole radiated signal
without reflector
2 dipole radiated signal
with reflector
Radiated Directed Signal
The Antenna Formula
= c] = 186,000 misec
c is the speed of light
is the wavelength of the signal
use 3 x 10
8
when dealing in meters for the speed of light

frequency of the signal
The Antenna Formula - applied
If a half-wave dipole antenna needed to
be constructed for a 60 Hz signal, how
large would it need to be?
= c] = 186,000 misec
60
= 3100 mi
2 = 1550 miles!
Radiation & Induction Fields
The mechanics launching radio
frequencies from an antenna are not
full understood. The RF fields that are
created around the antenna have
specific properties that affect the
signals transmission. The radiated field
field is known as the (surprisingly!)
radiation field
Radiation & Induction Fields-contd
There are two induction fields or areas
where signals collapse and radiate from
the antenna. They are known as the
near field and far field. The distance
that antenna inductance has on the
transmitted signal is directly
proportional to antenna height and the
dimensions of the wave
R > 2D
2


Radiation & Induction Fields-contd
R > 2D
2


Where: R = the distance from the antenna
D = dimension of the antenna
= wavelength of the transmitted
signal
Radiation Resistance
Radiation Resistance is the portion of
the antennas impedance that results in
power radiated into space (i.e., the
effective resistance that is related to the
power radiated by the antenna.
Radiation resistance varies with antenna
length. Resistance increases as the
increases
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
ERP is the power input value and the
gain of the antenna multiplied together
dBi = isotropic radiator gain
dBd = dipole antenna gain
Radiation Pattern
Radiation pattern is an indication of
radiated field strength around the
antenna. Power radiated from a /2
dipole occurs at right angles to the
antenna with no power emitting from
the ends of the antenna. Optimum
signal strength occurs at right angles or
180 from opposite the antenna
Radiation Patterns
Radiation pattern
Graphical representation of radiation properties
of an antenna
Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
Beam width (or half-power beam width)
Measure of directivity of antenna
Reception pattern
Receiving antennas equivalent to radiation
pattern
Radiation Pattern for Vertical Antennas
antenna
/4
/2
Antenna Gain
Antenna gain
Power output, in a particular direction,
compared to that produced in any direction by a
perfect omnidirectional antenna (isotropic
antenna)
Effective area
Related to physical size and shape of antenna
Antenna Gain
Antenna gain is the measure in dB how
much more power an antenna will
radiate in a certain direction with
respect to that which would be radiated
by a reference antenna
Antenna Gain
Relationship between antenna gain and effective
area



G = antenna gain
A
e
= effective area
f = carrier frequency
c = speed of light ( 3 10
8
m/s)
= carrier wavelength
2
2
2
4 4
c
A f A
G
e e
t

t
= =
Propagation Modes
Ground-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
Line-of-sight propagation
Ground Wave Propagation
Ground Wave Propagation
Follows contour of the earth
Can Propagate considerable distances
Frequencies up to 2 MHz
Example
AM radio
Sky Wave Propagation
Sky Wave Propagation
Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere
back down to earth
Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth
between ionosphere and earths surface
Reflection effect caused by refraction
Examples
Amateur radio
CB radio
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be
within line of sight
Satellite communication signal above 30 MHz not
reflected by ionosphere
Ground communication antennas within effective line
of site due to refraction
Refraction bending of microwaves by the
atmosphere
Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the
density of the medium
When wave changes medium, speed changes
Wave bends at the boundary between mediums
Line-of-Sight Equations
Optical line of sight

Effective, or radio, line of sight


d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)
h = antenna height (m)
K = adjustment factor to account for refraction,
rule of thumb K = 4/3
h d 57 . 3 =
h d K = 57 . 3
Line-of-Sight Equations
Maximum distance between two antennas
for LOS propagation:


h
1
= height of antenna one
h
2
= height of antenna two

( )
2 1
57 . 3 h h K + K
LOS Wireless Transmission Impairments
Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Free space loss
Noise
Atmospheric absorption
Multipath
Refraction
Thermal noise
Thermal Noise
Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons
Present in all electronic devices and
transmission media
Cannot be eliminated
Function of temperature
Particularly significant for satellite
communication
Noise Terminology
Intermodulation noise occurs if signals with
different frequencies share the same medium
Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency
that is the sum or difference of original frequencies
Crosstalk unwanted coupling between signal
paths
Impulse noise irregular pulses or noise spikes
Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or
faults and flaws in the communications system
Other Impairments
Atmospheric absorption water vapor and
oxygen contribute to attenuation
Multipath obstacles reflect signals so that
multiple copies with varying delays are
received
Refraction bending of radio waves as they
propagate through the atmosphere

Multipath Propagation
Multipath Propagation
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a
surface that is large relative to the wavelength of
the signal
Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable
body that is large compared to wavelength of radio
wave
Scattering occurs when incoming signal hits an
object whose size in the order of the wavelength
of the signal or less
The Effects of Multipath
Propagation
Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at
different phases
If phases add destructively, the signal level
relative to noise declines, making detection
more difficult
Intersymbol interference (ISI)
One or more delayed copies of a pulse may
arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for
a subsequent bit
Types of Fading
Fast fading
Slow fading
Flat fading
Selective fading
Rayleigh fading
Rician fading
Error Compensation Mechanisms
Forward error correction
Adaptive equalization
Diversity techniques
Forward Error Correction
Transmitter adds error-correcting code to data
block
Code is a function of the data bits
Receiver calculates error-correcting code from
incoming data bits
If calculated code matches incoming code, no error
occurred
If error-correcting codes dont match, receiver attempts
to determine bits in error and correct
Adaptive Equalization
Can be applied to transmissions that carry analog
or digital information
Analog voice or video
Digital data, digitized voice or video
Used to combat intersymbol interference
Involves gathering dispersed symbol energy back
into its original time interval
Techniques
Lumped analog circuits
Sophisticated digital signal processing algorithms
Antenna Height
Antenna height above the ground is directly
related to radiation resistance. Ground
reflections causing out-of-phase signals to
be radiated to receiving antennas will
degrade the transmission. Physical length
and electrical length of most antennas are
approximately 95% of the physical length.
Ideal antenna height is usually based on trial
and error procedures
Smart Antennas
Smart Antennas
smart antennas are base station antennas
with a pattern that is not fixed, but adapts to
the current radio conditions
smart antennas have the possibility for a
large increase in capacity: an increase of
three times for TDMA systems and five times
for CDMA systems has been reported.
Smart Antennas-contd
Major drawbacks and cost factors
include increased transceiver complexity
and more complex radio resource
management
Smart Antennas-contd
The idea of smart antennas is to use
base station antenna patterns that are
not fixed, but adapt to the current radio
conditions. This can be visualized as the
antenna directing a beam toward the
communication partner only
Smart Antennas-contd
Smart antennas add a new way of separating
users, namely by space, through SDMA
(space division multiple access)
By maximizing the antenna gain in the
desired direction and simultaneously placing
minimal radiation pattern in the directions of
the interferers, the quality of the
communication link can be significantly
improved
Elements of a Smart Antenna
Smart antennas consists of a number of
radiating elements, a combining/dividing
network and a control unit
Phased Array Antenna
Phased Array antennas are a
combination of antennas in which
there is a control of the phase and
power of the signal applied at each
antenna resulting in a wide variety
of possible radiation patterns
Types of Intelligent Antennas
Switched lobe (SL): This is also called
switched beam. It is the simplest
technique, and comprises only a basic
switching function between separate
directive antennas or predefined beams
of an array. The setting that gives the
best performance, usually in terms of
received power, is chosen
Intelligent Antennas-contd
Dynamically phased array (PA): By
including a direction of arrival (DoA)
algorithm for the signal received from
the user, continuous tracking can be
achieved and it can be viewed as a
generalization of the switched lobe
concept
Intelligent Antennas-contd
Adaptive array (AA): In this case, a DoA
algorithm for determining the direction toward
interference sources (e.g., other users) is added.
The radiation pattern can then be adjusted to null
out the interferers. In addition, by using special
algorithms and space diversity techniques, the
radiation pattern can be adapted to receive
multipath signals which can be combined. These
techniques will maximize the signal to
interference ratio (SIR)
SMDA
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
implies that more than one user can be
allocated to the same physical
communications channel simultaneously
in the same cell, only separated by
angle. In a TDMA system, two users will
be allocated to the same time slot and
carrier frequency at the same time and
in the same cell
SMDA-contd
In systems providing full SDMA, there
will be much more intracell handovers
than in conventional TDMA or CDMA
systems, and more monitoring by the
network is necessary
Antenna Installation Considerations
Safety
standard operating procedure priority
Grounding
lightning strikes
static charges
Surge protection
lightning searches for a second path to
ground
Antenna Installation Considerations-
contd
Adaptive array antenna placement
needs to be considered differently than
current technologies serving the mobile
environment. They need to be place so
they have a greater angular approach
to the receiving units. Existing tower
placement with close proximity to roads
and highways would need to be
reconsidered.
Antenna Installation Considerations
Base, mast, and supporting
structure needs clearance,
serviceability (access), and
complies with state, federal, and
municipal guidelines