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Chapter 7 Outline
Microbial Physiology
Introduction Microbial Nutritional Requirements Categorizing Microorganisms According to Their Energy and Carbon Sources Metabolic Enzymes Biologic Catalysts Factors That Affect the Efficiency of Enzymes
Metabolism
Catabolism Anabolism Bacterial Genetics
Mutations
Ways in Which Bacteria Acquire New Genetic Information Genetic Engineering Gene Therapy
Microbial Physiology
Introduction
Physiology is the study of the vital life processes of organisms. Microbial physiology concerns the vital life processes of microorganisms. Scientists can learn about human cells by studying the nutritional needs of bacteria, their metabolic pathways, and why they live, grow, multiply, or die under certain conditions. Bacteria, fungi, and viruses are used extensively in genetic studies because they produce generation after generation so rapidly.
Copyright 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Microbial Physiology
Nutritional Requirements
All living protoplasm contains 6 major chemical elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
Combinations of these and other elements make up vital macromolecules of life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Materials that organisms are unable to synthesize, but are required for building macromolecules and sustaining life, are termed essential nutrients (e.g., certain essential amino acids and essential fatty acids).
Microbial Physiology
Microbial Physiology
Microbial Physiology
Metabolic Enzymes
Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell. The chemical reactions are referred to as metabolic reactions.
Metabolic reactions are enhanced and regulated by enzymes known as metabolic enzymes.
Biologic Catalysts
Enzymes are biologic catalysts; they are proteins that either cause a particular chemical reaction to occur or accelerate it.
Metabolic Enzymes
Metabolic Enzymes
Metabolic Enzymes
Metabolism
As previously stated, metabolism refers to all of the chemical reactions within a cell - reactions known as metabolic reactions.
A metabolite is any molecule that is a nutrient, an intermediary product, or an end product in a metabolic reaction.
Metabolic reactions fall into 2 categories: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism refers to all catabolic reactions in a cell. Anabolism refers to all anabolic reactions in a cell.
Copyright 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Metabolism, cont.
Catabolic reactions involve the breaking down of larger molecules into smaller ones. Whenever chemical bonds are broken, energy is released. Catabolic reactions are a cells major source of energy.
Anabolic reactions involve the assembly of smaller molecules into larger molecules, requiring the formation of bonds. Once formed, the bonds represent stored energy. Much of the energy released during catabolic reactions is used to drive anabolic reactions.
Copyright 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Metabolism, cont.
Energy can be temporarily stored in high-energy bonds in special molecules, usually adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP molecules are the major energy-storing or energy-carrying molecules in a cell. ATP molecules are found in all cells because they are used to transfer energy from energy-yielding molecules like glucose, to energy-requiring reactions. When ATP is used as an energy source, it is hydrolyzed to adenosine diphosphate (ADP). ADP can be used as an energy source by hydrolysis to adenosine monophosphate (AMP).
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Metabolism, cont.
Energy is required not only for metabolic pathways, but also for growth, reproduction, sporulation, and movement of the organism, as well as active transport of substances across membranes. Some organisms (e.g., marine dinoflagellates) use energy for bioluminescence. Cellular mechanisms that release small amounts of energy as the cell needs it usually involve a sequence of catabolic and anabolic reactions.
Metabolism
Catabolism
Catabolic reactions release energy (by breaking bonds) and are a cells major source of energy. Some energy is lost as heat in catabolic reactions.
Biochemical pathways are a series of linked biochemical reactions occurring in a stepwise manner, from a starting material to an end product.
Think of nutrients as energy sources for organisms and think of chemical bonds as stored energy. Glucose, for example, can be catabolized by one of 2 common biochemical pathways: aerobic respiration and fermentation.
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A biochemical pathway with 4 steps. Compound A is ultimately converted to compound E. Four enzymes are required in this biochemical pathway. Compound A is the substrate for Enzyme 1, Compound B for Enzyme 2, etc.
Metabolism
Catabolism, cont.
Catabolism of glucose by aerobic respiration occurs in 3 phases (each is a biochemical pathway): Glycolysis
Catabolism
In eucaryotes, the TCA cycle and the electron transport chain occur in mitochondria.
In procaryotes, both occur at the inner surface of the cell membrane.
Copyright 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Catabolism
Catabolism
Fermentation of Glucose
Fermentation reactions do not involve oxygen. They take place in anaerobic environments. There are many industrial applications of fermentation reactions.
Catabolism
Oxidation occurs whenever an atom, ion, or molecule loses one or more electrons in a reaction; in which case, the molecule is said to be oxidized.
The gain of one or more electrons by a molecule is called reduction and the molecule is said to be reduced. Within a cell, an oxidation reaction is always paired with a reduction reaction; hence the term, oxidation-reduction reaction.
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Catabolism
Anabolism
Anabolic reactions require energy because chemical bonds are being formed. The energy that is required comes from catabolic reactions, which are occurring simultaneously. Anabolic reactions are also called biosynthetic reactions. Biosynthesis of organic compounds requires energy. The energy may be obtained through photosynthesis (from light) or chemosynthesis (from chemicals). Photosynthetic reactions trap the radiant energy of light and convert it into chemical bond energy in ATP and carbohydrates (e.g., glucose).
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Bacterial Genetics
Genetics = the study of heredity. An organisms genotype is its complete collection of genes. An organisms phenotype refers to its physical traits (e.g., includes hair and eye color in humans). An organisms phenotype is the manifestation of that organisms genotype. Genes direct all functions of the cell. A particular segment of the chromosome constitutes a gene.
Copyright 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Bacterial Genetics
Mutations
A change in a DNA molecule (genetic alteration) that is transmissible to offspring is called a mutation.
3 categories of mutations:
Beneficial mutations Harmful mutations (some are lethal mutations)
Silent mutations
Mutation rate (the rate at which mutations occur) can be increased by exposing cells to physical or chemical agents called mutagens.
Bacterial Genetics
Transformation
Conjugation An extrachromosomal DNA molecule is called a plasmid. An organism that acquires a plasmid acquires new genes. A plasmid that can either exist by itself or can integrate into the chromosome is called an episome.
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(A) A disrupted E. coli cell, in which the DNA has spilled out. A plasmid can be seen slightly to the left of top center (arrow). (B) Enlargement of plasmid.
Bacterial Genetics
Lysogenic Conversion
The phage DNA integrates into the bacterial chromosome, but does not cause the lytic cycle to occur this is known as lysogeny.
A phage is called a prophage when all that remains of it is its DNA. The bacterial cell containing the prophage is referred to as a lysogenic cell. The bacterial cell exhibits new properties, directed by the viral genes this is referred to as lysogenic conversion.
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Bacterial Genetics
In transduction, bacterial genetic material is carried across from one bacterial cell to another by a bacterial virus; thus, in transduction, bacteria acquire new bacterial genes. Note how this differs from lysogenic conversion, wherein bacteria acquire new genetic information in the form of viral genes.
Only small amounts of genetic material are transferred by transduction.
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Generalized Transduction
Bacterial Genetics
Transformation
Bacterial Genetics
Conjugation
Conjugation
Sex pilus
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Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology involves techniques to transfer eucaryotic genes (particularly human genes) into easily cultured cells to manufacture important gene products (mostly proteins). Plasmids are frequently used as vehicles for inserting genes into cells.
There are many industrial and medical benefits from genetic engineering.
Examples: synthesis of antibodies, antibiotics, drugs and vaccines; also, for synthesis of important enzymes and hormones for treatment of diseases.
Copyright 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy of human diseases involves the insertion of a normal gene into cells to correct a specific genetic disorder caused by a defective gene.
Viral delivery is the most common method for inserting genes into cells; specific viruses are selected to target the DNA of specific cells.
Genes may someday be regularly prescribed as drugs in the treatment of diseases (e.g., autoimmune diseases, sickle cell anemia, cancer, cystic fibrosis, heart disease, etc.)