AN OVERVIEW

LEARNING THEORIES (ON HOW PEOPLE LEARN) DR. AZIDAH ABU ZIDEN

WHY LEARNING THEORIES?

An understanding and incorporation of

learning theory is needed when designing instruction because it adds focus and direction to the process. Instructional designers should address their goals and intentions of designing instruction in order to best incorporate learning theory within their programs.

WHY LEARNING THEORIES?

This requires considering the learners needs

and characteristics, content and context, the strengths and weaknesses of the learning theory considering the scope of the instruction as well as the designers own intentions, preferences, and expectations.

THREE MAIN THEORIES

1. BEHAVIORISM 2. COGNITIVISM 3. CONSTRUCTIVISM

BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism
Definition Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human

learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.

 Experiments by behaviorists identify

conditioning as a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral pattern:

Classic conditioning
Classic conditioning occurs when a natural

reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular example is Pavlovs observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response.

Behavioral or operant conditioning

Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs

when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley.

Criticisms of behaviorism
Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of

learning, since it disregards the activities of the mind. Behaviorism does not explain some learning such as the recognition of new language patterns by young childrenfor which there is no reinforcement mechanism. Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new information. For instance, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to changes in the layout of a maze it had previously mastered through reinforcements.

How Behaviorism Impacts Learning

This theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only on observable behavior and describes several universal laws of behavior.
Its positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be very effectiveboth in animals, and in treatments for human disorders such as autism and antisocial behavior. Behaviorism often is used by teachers, who reward or punish student behaviors.

COGNITIVISM

COGNITIVISM
A cognitivist views the learning process as an

internal and active mental process, which develops within a learner, increased mental capacity and skills in order to learn better. One assumption of cognitivism is that an existing knowledge structure must be present in order to compare and process new information for learning. This existing knowledge structure is referred to as schema.

 Cognitivists believe learners develop

learning through receiving, storing and retrieving information.

Strengths of Cognitivism
Learning is relevant. Cognitive-focused

instruction has the potential to provide more meaningful learning to the learner with a longer impact. Writing behavioral-based instructional objectives as stated earlier specify clear, measurable terms.

Weaknesses of Cognitivism
A major weakness of cognitivism lies in its

strength. Whereas schemas help to make learning more meaningful, a learner is markedly at a disadvantage whenever relevant schemas or prerequisite knowledge do not exist.

Weaknesses of Cognitivism
One additional weakness of cognitivism is

similar to behaviorism in the belief that there are only finite, pre-determined goals. Having pre-determined goals may be in fact desirable for an organization since it offers clear direction and purpose but such a fixed set of expectations can limit the potential of the learning.

CONSTRUCTIVISM

CONSTRUCTIVISM
Definition Constructivism is a philosophy of learning

founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own rules and mental models, which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.

 By definition, knowledge construction is an active,

rather than a passive process. The process of constructing ones knowledge can involve both cognitive (Cunningham, 1988, 1993) and physical constructions (Harel & Papert, 1991) of meaning, through the development of mental models or schemas (Johnson-Laird, 1980), as well as physical or virtual representations of knowledge (McClellan, 1996; Winn, Hoffman & Osberg, 1995; Winn, 1993, 1994; Papert, 1993; Duffy & Jonassen, 1992; Winn & Bricken, 1992; Mones-Hattal & Mandes, 1996).

THE DIFFERENCE
Behaviorists view knowledge as something

that happens in response to external factors, and Cognitivists view knowledge as abstract symbolic representations inside the learner's head, Constructivists view knowledge as constructed internally by each individual.

How does learning occur?

The learner creates meaning from

experience. The mind filters input from the external world to create its own singular version of reality.

There are several guiding principles of constructivism

Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore,

learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts.

There are several guiding principles of constructivism

The purpose of learning is for an individual to

construct his or her own meaning, not just memorize the right answers and regurgitate someone elses meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the quality of their learning.

How Constructivism Impacts Learning

CurriculumConstructivism calls for the

elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.

How Constructivism Impacts Learning

InstructionUnder the theory of

constructivism, educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyze, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students.

How Constructivism Impacts Learning

AssessmentConstructivism calls for the

elimination of grades and standardized testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging their own progress.

 Two valued tenets of constructivist practice are the process of collaborative learning and deep personal introspection into ones own learning process (Brooks & Brooks, 1993, 1996). Through dialogue, we form a network of understanding, a community of others with whom we can learn and share through discourse. Dialogue, however is not the only active means

of knowledge construction at our disposal. Mental manipulation, visualization, and the process of developing, testing and discarding hypotheses (Shank, 1992, Shank et al, 1994) are also indicative actions of an individual actively engaged in the knowledge construction process.

FUNCTION Classroom Activity

INSTRUCTION Teacher-centered; didactic Fact teller; expert Listener; always the learner Facts; memorization

CONSTRUCTION Learner-centered; interactive Collaborator; learner Collaborator; sometimes the expert Relationships; inquiry and invention Transformation of facts

Teacher Role Student Role

Instructional Emphasis Concept of Knowledge

Accumulation of facts

Comparison of Instruction and Knowledge Construction Practices

Demonstration of Success

Quantity

Quality of understanding

Assessment

Norm-referenced; multiple-choice items

Criterion-referenced; portfolios and performances Communication, collabor- ation, information access and retrieval, expression

Technology Use

Drill and practice

These guidelines reflect a constructivist orientation:

Extend students' responsibility for their own

learning. Allow students to determine what they need to learn. Enable students to manage their own learning activities. Enable students to contribute to each other's learning. Create a non-threatening setting for learning. Help students develop metacognitive awareness.

These guidelines reflect a constructivist orientation:

Make learning meaningful. Make maximum use of existing knowledge. Anchor instruction in realistic settings. Provide multiple ways to learn content. Promote active knowledge construction. Use activities to promote higher level thinking. Encourage the review of multiple perspectives. Encourage creative and flexible problem solving. Provide a mechanism for students to present their learning

MEDIA SELECTION
Consider media factors early in the design

cycle. Practical and cost constraints typically dictate that tentative media decisions will be made relatively early in the design process. Media then becomes one of the instructional factors that receives increasing attention through iterations of analysis.

MEDIA SELECTION
Include media literacy and biases as a consideration

in media decisions. Different media send different "messages" to an audience, independently of the instructional content. Look for any "hidden curriculum" elements in different media choices. Avoid negative stereotypes and cultural biases. Consider the rhetorical goodness of fit between media choice and overall instructional purposes. Also, design messages that are sensitive to an audience's media sophistication and literacy, paying particular attention to humor, media conventions, and production values.

Active Learning
The new paradigm for active education puts the

learner in control of the learning process. Students can pursue topics that interest them. The process of learning becomes as important as the result. The students are now in charge of their learning. They can each explore the topic that most interests them, customizing their educational experience. They can actively pursue information and learn independent thinking skills. The teacher no longer needs to be a subject expertan impossible task in this age of so much information. Instead, the teacher now oversees the learning process.

THANK YOU