This lecture will discuss: storage devices input devices and output devices.

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The peripherals are referred to all the items that are external to the CPU, main memory and power supply. These includes:

Thumb drive, a floppy disk drive, a hard disk drive, serial ports, parallel port(s), USB ports, a keyboard, a mouse, a network interface, CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive, a sound system, a modem, a monitor, tape drives, scanners, printers, plotters, and audio, video input devices, etc.

Some of the peripherals use the parallel, USB, and serial ports as their interconnection point to the computer.

Others have their own interface to the system bus.

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Peripheral devices are classified as

storage devices (secondary memory) Flash memory Magnetic Disk Magnetic tape CD-ROM : (your assignment) Etc. input devices Keyboard Mouse Touch screen Graphics tablets Etc. output devices Printers : (your assignment) Scanners Displays Etc.

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Is treated as I/O. Data and programs in secondary storage must be copied to primary memory for CPU access. Except for flash memory, secondary storage is significantly slower than primary storage, and flash memory is expensive compared to other forms of secondary storage. Most secondary storage devices are mechanical in nature, and mechanical devices are usually slower than devices that are purely electronic.
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Advantages of secondary storage,

Its permanence
The magnetic media used for disk and tape and the

optical media used for disk retain the data indefinitely.

Capable of storing massive amounts of data.

Used for offline archiving, for transferring programs

and data from machine to machine, installation purposes, and for offsite backup storage.

Relatively inexpensive compared to main memory.

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Flash memory

Thumb drive
RAID Removable

Magnetic Disk

Optical
CD-ROM CD-Recordable (CD-R) CD-R/W DVD

Magnetic Tape
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Typically small, lightweight, removable and rewritable. Memory capacity typically ranges from 8 MB up to 64 GB, limited only by current flash memory densities.

As capacity increases, so does price.

Several advantages over other portable storage devices:

Generally faster, hold more data, and are considered more reliable (due to their lack of moving parts) than floppy disks.
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A flash drive has a small PCB encased in a robust plastic or metal casing, making the drive sturdy enough to be carried about in a pocket.
Only the USB connector protrudes from this protection, and is usually covered by a removable cap. Most flash drives use a standard type-A USB connection allowing them to be connected directly to a port on a personal computer.

Most flash drives are active only when powered by a USB computer connection, and require no other external power source or battery power source.
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The internal components of a typical flash drive

1 USB connector 2 USB mass storage controller device

3 Test points
4 Flash memory chip 5 Crystal oscillator

6 LED
7 Write-protect switch 8 Unpopulated space for second flash memory chip

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The controller contains a small RISC microprocessor and a small amount of on-chip ROM and RAM. Flash storage devices are best compared to other common, portable, swappable data storage devices: floppy disks, Zip disks, and CD-R/CD-RW discs. 3.5 inch floppy disks and Iomega Zip disks.

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An obvious extension of flash memory would be as a replacement for hard disks.

Flash memory does not have the mechanical limitations and latencies of hard drives. is attractive when considering speed, noise, power consumption, and reliability

However, the cost per gigabyte of flash memory remains significantly higher than that of platter-based hard drives.

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A magnetic disk consists of one or more flat, circular platters made of glass, metal, or plastic, and coated with a magnetic substance similar to that used on cassette tape. Substance used to be aluminium Now glass

Improved surface uniformity Increases reliability Reduction in surface defects Reduced read/write errors Better shock/damage resistance

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There are two major types of magnetic disks, hard disks and floppy disks or diskettes. The design of a floppy disk limits the number of surfaces to two, specifically the top and bottom of the single disk platter within its diskette case. Most hard disk drives contain several platters, all mounted on the same axis, with heads on each surface of each platter.

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The heads move in tandem, so they are positioned over the same point on each surface. With the head in a particular position, it traces out a circle (track) on the disk surface as the disk rotates; Since the heads on each surface all line up, the set of tracks for all the surfaces form a cylinder. Each track contains one or more blocks of data, which commonly divided into equally sized pie shape segments (sectors).

Each sector on a single track contains one block of data, typically 512 bytes, and represents the smallest unit that can be independently read or written.

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Bit near centre of rotating disk passes fixed point slower than bit on outside of disk Increase spacing between bits in different tracks Rotate disk at constant angular velocity (CAV)

Gives pie shaped sectors and concentric tracks Individual tracks and sectors addressable Move head to given track and wait for given sector Waste of space on outer tracks Lower data density Each zone has fixed bits per track More complex circuitry
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Can use zones to increase capacity

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Multiple zone recording - A few high-density disks are designed with a different number of sectors in different tracks. This technique uses a constant speed motor but compensates for different transfer speeds in the controller.
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Must be able to identify start of track and sector Format disk

Additional information not available to user Marks tracks and sectors

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Fixed (rare) or movable head Removable or fixed Single or double (usually) sided Single or multiple platter Head mechanism
Contact (Floppy) Fixed gap Flying (Winchester)

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Fixed head

One read write head per track Heads mounted on fixed ridged arm One read write head per side Mounted on a movable arm

Movable head

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Removable disk

Can be removed from drive and replaced with another disk Provides unlimited storage capacity Easy data transfer between systems
Permanently mounted in the drive

Nonremovable disk

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One head per side Heads are joined and aligned Aligned tracks on each platter form cylinders Data is striped by cylinder

reduces head movement Increases speed (transfer rate)

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Hard disk drives are accessed over one of a number of bus types:

Parallel ATA (PATA, also called IDE or EIDE), Serial ATA (SATA), SCSI, Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), and Fibre Channel.

Bridge circuitry is sometimes used to connect hard disk drives to buses that they cannot communicate with natively, such as IEEE 1394 and USB.
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8, 5.25, 3.5 Small capacity

Up to 1.44Mbyte (2.88M never popular)

Slow Universal Cheap Obsolete?

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A little difference between the operation of floppy disks and hard disks, but the mechanical differences have important effects on the overall capacity, speed, data transfer rate, and reliability of hard drives versus floppy disks. Capacity: hard disk > a floppy disk The heads on a hard disk do not touch the surface; rather, they ride on a bed of air a few millionths of an inch above the surface - allows the disk to rotate at high speed and also allows the designers to locate the tracks very close together. The result is a disk that can store large amounts of data and that retrieves data quickly.
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Because the floppy disk is soft and flexible,

it is necessary to support the disk surface as data is being read and written. To do so, the disk is pinched lightly between two heads, one on each surface of the disk. As a result of this physical contact between the disk surface and the heads, the disk must be rotated more slowly, so as not to wear out the heads or scrape the disk surface. A typical hard disk rotates at 5400 revolutions per minute (rpm), 7200rpm, or even 10,800rpm. The floppy disk rotates at 360 rpm.

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Developed by IBM in Winchester (USA) The entire assembly is sealed to prevent dirt particles from wedging between the heads and the disk platter. One or more platters (disks) Heads fly on boundary layer of air as disk spins Very small head to disk gap Getting more robust
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In larger computer environments, that provide program and data storage facilities for a network, it is common to group multiple disks together. Such a grouping of two or more disk drives is called a disk array or a drive array. A disk array can be used to reduce overall data access time by sharing the data among multiple disks and also to increase system reliability. The assumption made is that the number of blocks to be manipulated at a given time is large enough and important enough. Example: RAID (Redundant array of inexpensive disks).
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Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (defined by Patterson et al., 1988). Redundant Array of Independent Disks (industry redefined I to be Independent) 7 levels in common use: RAID 0, RAID 1,.RAID 6 Not a hierarchy but designate different design architecture. Set of physical disks viewed as single logical drive by O/S Data distributed across physical drives Can use redundant capacity to store parity information
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Two standard methods of implementing a disk array: mirrored array

Has two or more disk drives. each disk stores exactly the same data. During reads, alternate blocks of the data are read from

different drives, then combined to reassemble the original data faster access time.

striped array
requires a minimum of three disk drives.

one disk drive is reserved for error checking.

A file segment to be stored is divided into blocks, which

are then written simultaneously to different disks.

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No redundancy Data striped across all disks Round Robin striping Increase speed Use in supercomputer where performance and capacity are important and low cost is more important than reliability.

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Mirrored Disks Data is striped across disks 2 copies of each stripe on separate disks Read from either Write to both Recovery is simple

Swap faulty disk & re-mirror No down time

Expensive
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Serial access Slow Very cheap Backup and archive

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Is used for secondary storage: when offline storage is acceptable or preferred, when the data storage capacity requirements exceed those of a floppy disk and when sequential access is adequate. Tape is nonvolatile, and the data can be stored indefinitely. Modern computers all use tape cartridges for offline storage. easy to mount and dismount, and small and easy to store. Some can store as much as 300GB of compressed data.

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A computer display (also known as a computer monitor, computer screen, or computer video display) is a device that can display signals generated by a computer as images on a screen. It is used to display image (or text) to the user. An image made up of thousands of individual pixels, or picture elements, arranged to make up a large rectangular screen. Each pixel is a tiny square on the display. A typical screen/display is made up of 768 rows of 1024 pixels each, known as a 1024 x 768 pixel screen. Screens of 640 x 480 pixels or 800 x 600 pixels are also still in use, and resolutions of 1280 x 1024 pixels, or even higher have become common, especially on physically larger screens.

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Each individual pixel represents a shade of gray (on a monochrome screen) or a colour. A color pixel is actually made up of a mixture of different intensities of red, green, and blue (RGB). A monochrome scale with no shading would require only 1 bit per pixel (1 for white, 0 for black). Typical colour display has 256 colours, or many more.

It takes 1 byte per pixel to represent a 256-clour image.

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True colour system use 8 bit per colour (i.e. 24 bit in all).

It can represent 256*256*256 different colours on the screen.

With 8 bits, there is no way to divide the bits to represent reds, blues, and greens equally.

Instead, 256 arbitrary combinations of red, blue, and green are chosen from a larger palette of colors. More commonly, a default color scheme is used.

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Each pixel value is represented by a value of 0-255, representing the color for that pixel. A color transformation table, also known as a palette table, holds the RGB values for each of the 256 possible colors. To display a pixel on the screen, the system transforms the pixel color to a screen color by reading the RGB values that correspond to the particular pixel value from the table - is performed by a special circuitry on the video card. Most output, including text data, is presented graphically.
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In some PCs, the display circuitry is usually provided on a separate plug-in video card;

video memory is supplied with the card.

In some PCs, and most laptops, the video circuitry is included on the motherboard.

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The actual display is produced by scanning and displaying each pixel, one row at a time, from left to right, then from top to bottom.
Known as a raster scan. Identical to the way that television pictures are generated.

Some monitors Interlace the display, by displaying the odd rows (i.e. row 1, 3, 5 etc.) and then coming back and displaying the even rows.

Not popular - results in flickering that is annoying to some users.

Vector scan - pixels are displayed in whatever order is necessary to trace out a particular image.
E.g. by following the outline of the character vector scan could trace a character. Not suitable for bit map graphics, but can be used with object graphics images, such as those used for CAD/CAM applications. Generating vector scan images on a display screen is electronically much more difficult and expensive than producing raster scans Thus, raster scans are used almost universally today.

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LCD has become more common, but cathode ray tube (CRT) remains the most common display technology. 3 electron guns (red, blue, and green) within the tube shoot beams of electrons from the back of the tube.
There is a high voltage applied to the inside of the face of the tube attracts the beams to the face.

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The face of the tube is painted with tiny dots or thin stripes of phosphors, which glow when struck by electrons. A shadow mask in the tube is designed such that electrons from each gun can strike only phosphors of the matching color. The strength of the beams varies depending on the color and brightness of the point being displayed: The stronger the beam for a particular color, the brighter that color appears on the screen. Monochrome video monitors work identically, except that only a single gun is required, the phosphor is white, yellow, or green, and no shadow mask is required.

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Screen burn-in: an image is displayed on the screen for a long period of time without changing, the screen that is showing will embed itself into the glass. use a good screensaver program that rotates often. Some LCD monitors may get "dead pixels" over time. This generally applies to older LCD monitors from the 1990's.

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A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. it uses very small amounts of electric power, and is therefore suitable for use in batterypowered electronic devices.

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Important factors to consider when evaluating an LCD monitor include:

Resolution:
the physical number of columns and rows of pixels

creating the display (eg, 852x480; 1368x768 etc).

viewable size. response time (sync rate) - amount of time a pixel in an LCD monitor takes to go from active (black) to inactive (white) and back to active (black) again (ms).
Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore

fewer visible image artifacts.

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LCD panels have the advantage of:

small size, bright images, no flicker, and low power consumption.

so they are ideal for laptop computers.

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Primary used - to input paper images. A device that analyzes an image or an object (such as an ornament) and converts it to a digital image. Scanners are generally less expensive and more convenient. 3 primary types of scanners:
flatbed scanners, sheet-fed scanners, handheld scanners, but all 3 work similarly and differ only in the way the scan element is moved with respect to the paper.

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In a flatbed scanner, the paper is placed on a glass window, while the scan element moves down the page, much like a copy machine. In a sheet-fed scanner, a single page of paper is propelled through the mechanism with rollers; the scan element is stationary. Handheld scanners are propelled by the user over the page.

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The scanning mechanism consists of a light source and a row of light sensors.

As the light is reflected from individual points on the page, it is received by the light sensors and translated to digital signals that correspond to the brightness of each point. Color filters can be used to produce color images.

The resolution of scanners is approximately 6002400 points per inch.

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Users use a variety of devices to interact with the computer:

Text Input:
Keyboards (most popular) - consist of a number of switches and

a keyboard controller. The keyboard controller is built into the keyboard itself. Speech recognition.

Pointing devices:
Mouse- a handheld pointing device, designed to sit under one

hand of the user and to detect movement relative to its twodimensional supporting surface.
mechanical mouse

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Optical mouse uses a light-emitting diode and photodiodes to detect the movement of the underlying surface, rather than moving some of its parts as in a mechanical mouse. Laser mouse uses a small laser instead of a LED.

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Operating a mechanical mouse. 1: Moving the mouse turns the ball. 2: X and Y rollers grip the ball and transfer movement. 3: Optical encoding disks include light holes. 4: Infrared LEDs shine through the disks. 5: Sensors gather light pulses to convert to X and Y velocities. .

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Joystick Touch screen Touchpad Light pen- pointed at the screen to identify a position on the screen. By moving the pen around the screen, a cursor can be made to follow the pen.

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Like other I/O devices, there is a network interface unit (NIU) that handles the physical characteristics of the connection and one or more I/O drivers that manage and steer input data, output data, and interrupts. The interface between a computer and a network is more complicated than that for most other I/O peripherals.

Data must be formatted in specific ways to communicate successfully with a wide range of application and system software located on other computers. The computer also must be able to address a large number of devices individually, specifically, every other computer connected to the network. Security of communication is important.

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Most of these concerns are handled with protocol software in the operating system. The NIU is responsible only for:
the electrical signals that connect the computer to the network, either directly or through a communication channel, and for the protocols, implemented in hardware, that define the specific rules of communication for the network. These protocols are called medium access control protocols, or MACs.

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