Research Methodology Unit I Introduction

Meanings
Research : search again, scientific investigation, inquiry, study, continuous process of searching new knowledge, fact finding Science : body of systematic knowledge i) natural science physics, chemistry, biology (botany and zoology) ii) social science demography, economics, education, geography, history, law, linguistics, management, political science, psychology, sociology, commerce, anthropology

Social Research
Research is a systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for theoretical formulation. Kothari (1990)

Objectives
To get answers to questions about social phenomenon through the application of scientific method. To understand society by observing, classifying and analyzing social facts, but it does not aim at finding ultimate truth of the nature. It seeks to find explanation to unexplained social phenomena.

Objectives
It aims at understanding the human behaviour and its interaction with the social institution. It may be the acquisition of new knowledge in order to gain insights into existing problems. To understand social life and thereby to gain a greater measure of control over social behavior. (P. V. Young) To understand the cause-effect relationship of some social phenomena.

Concept
A concept is a word or a phrase which symbolises the phenomenon and helps to communicate the finding. Concept is simply mental images or perceptions The object of concepts is to study, organise, manipulate and isolate the properties of objects. Meanings of concepts go on changing time to time.

Variables
Concepts that can take on more than one value along a continuum are called variables. Bailey (1982) A variable is also known as the property or characteristics of any object that can very within a certain limit. Eg :- age, income

Types of Variables
Qualitative variables - related to qualitative phenomena, eg: gender, employment, locality, religion Quantitative variables - series of numerical units, statistical purpose eg: age, number of children, income

Types of Variables
Causal explanation, the cause is the independent variables and the effect is the dependent variable. Independent Variables - variable that can affect in the change of other variable Dependent Variables - variable which cannot affect in the change of the other variable and whose value depends upon the other variable.

Measurements
It is a process of assigning number to concepts or variables. It is an integral part of research In scientific studies, the terms, concepts or variables must be empirically measured so that other researchers can verify the findings. Quantitative variables like age, height, weight, income, temperature etc are easy to measure. Qualitative variables are also measured in social science research

Levels of Measurement
1. Nominal Measurement categories of a variable and their frequencies (Yes/No) 2. Ordinal Measurement rank order of preferences or positions (1st, 2nd, 3rd) 3. Interval Measurement items are ranked in an equal interval, values of variables are measured through certain class-intervals. 4. Ratio Measurement allows multiplication and division of data, ratio scales have an absolute or true zero

Reliability
Reliability refers to consistency of a measure. A measuring instrument is said to be reliable if it provides consistent results. In case of a social research, the measuring instruments are used as questionnaires or interview schedules which are not standardized and so that less reliable they are. There are two aspects of reliability : stability and equivalence

Validity
A measuring instrument is said to be valid if it accurately measures what is to be measured. There are two aspects of validity : (a) that the measuring instrument should measure the phenomenon or concept accurately; and (b) it should not measure some other concepts at a time. The researcher should use more valid measuring instruments as far as possible. However assessing validity of measuring instruments is debatable.

Induction
Induction is a process of reasoning whereby we arrive at universal generalizations from particular facts. Induction involves two processes observation and generalization. A perfect induction is the process of establishing a universal proposition by an exhaustive enumeration of all the instances of the type covered by the universal proposition.

Deduction
Deduction is a process of drawing generalizations, through a process of reasoning on the basis of certain assumptions which are either self-evident or based on observation. In deduction, we deduce generalizations from universal to particular. Depending upon the premises, every deductive reasoning is either valid or invalid.

Generalization
A science is concerned with the generality of things. When the truth is discovered in a science, it is expressed in the form of generalization. A generalization is a general proposition regarding classes, objects or events, or the existence of a definite relationship among certain types of events or objects or classes.

Generalizations
Generalizations may be taken as the media of collecting fresh and new knowledge about different phenomena. Generalization itself helps to bring new facts and new knowledge. The present generalizations may become the basis of future investigation into facts and circumstances, and therefore, it may be the basis of future generalizations.

Types of Generalization
There are two types of scientific generalization: 1. Empirical Generalization - based on empirical observation and experience, it does not say as to why the situation has happened, but it simply describes the situation. 2. Explanatory Generalization - provides the explanation for the tendencies, regularities or uniformities observed by the scientists, it explains the cause of the phenomenon.

Hypothesis
A Hypothesis is a proposition that is stated in a testable form and predicts a particular relationship between two (or more) variables. (Bailey 1974) A Hypothesis is indispensible for any scientific investigation. The hypothesis always guides and gives direction to the scientific investigation. Without a hypothesis, a scientist cannot know as to what to observe and how to observe.

Uses of Hypothesis
Hypothesis forms the starting point of investigation. Hypothesis makes observation and experiment possible. Hypothesis is an aid to explanation Hypothesis makes deduction possible. Hypothesis helps researcher to know what types of data are to be collected and what not. Hypothesis is always useful for drawing proper and reasonable inferences for theory building and testing them.

Types of Hypothesis
In the context of testing hypothesis, we often talk about two types of hypothesis

1) Null Hypotheses: 2) Alternative Hypothesis:

Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis (Ho) is a statistical proposition of no difference between variables. It specifies the independence of variables. The term null refers to invalid. The null hypothesis asserts that there is no relationship between variables. Eg : The drug is not effective for curing malaria Here, the variables drug and malaria are independent or there is no relationship between these variables.

Alternate Hypothesis
When the null hypothesis is rejected, the investigator turns to an alternate hypothesis. Or, alternate hypothesis is to be accepted if the null hypothesis is rejected. The alternate hypothesis states that there is a relationship between variables. Alternate hypothesis (Ha or H1) is also known as research hypothesis. Eg: The drug is effective for curing malaria.

What is a theory?
A theory is a set of concepts plus the interrelationships that are assumed to exist among these concepts. A theory is a tested and established hypothesis. A theory is nothing but a set of systematically related propositions specifying the causal relationships among the involved variables. A theory contains not only interrelated pieces of knowledge but it also provides a definite mechanism for producing new knowledge

Role of a Theory
It gives the necessary orientation to a science by defining the area of study. A theory gives us a structure of concepts. With the help of a theory, a system can be built up on the basis of the observed data and fact. A theory can give a satisfactory summary of the empirical generalizations. A theory gives rise to some implications which may be called the predictions. There may be several types of predictions of a theory. A theory fills up the gap in our knowledge by summarizing the information and also by predicting facts. A theory provides guidelines and directions for conducting research by pointing out the areas which would be meaningful for conducting the study.

Interrelationship Between Theory and Research

When a hypothesis is verified and found to be true, it becomes a theory. This theory when it works satisfactorily and is proved, is generally accepted. It then becomes an instrument of further explanation and prediction. At this stage, the theory becomes a law. Thus the hypothesis ripens into a theory, a theory into a law and the law becomes so familiar that it becomes a fact. To test the fact again research is done. Thus there is interdependence of research and theory.

Ethics in Social Research

Ethics is the appropriate or standard behavior of a person. If one person becomes unethical, some other persons may be harmed by that behavior. Every professional researchers must be ethical. In the context of social or biological research, ethics refers to the appropriateness or acceptability of methodological application as well as researchers behavior for preserving the rights of the research subjects.

Guidelines to be ethical in Social Research

You should seek informed consent from the participants. You must not misrepresent your ability during rapport building. You should motivate and must not compel the people to participate in your research You should not exaggerate the likely benefits of your research to motivate the respondents You must respect the rights to privacy of research subjects and their dignity.

 You must preserve the confidentiality of data and individual anonymity