SUBMITTED BY: ASHU TOSH TYAGI (AP,AS&H,MIT)

CONTENT
y Temperature dependence of resistivity in

superconductor y Meissner effect y Type 1 superconductor y Type 2 superconductor

CONTENT
y Temperature dependence of critical field y BCS theory y High temperature superconductor y Characteristics of superconductor in superconducting

state y Application of superconductor

Content
y Basic principle of sound y Generation of ultrasonic y Piezoelectric effect y Detection of ultrasonic y Application of ultrasonic

What's a superconductor?
y Linear reduction in resistivity as temperature is

decreased: V = Vo (1 + E(T-To))
where V: resistivity and E: the linear temperature coefficient of resistivity.

y Resistivity: Vs ~ 4x10-23 ; cm for

superconductor. y Resistivity: Vm ~ 1x10-13 ; cm for nonsuperconductor metal.

cont.
y Most materials will only superconduct, at very low

temperatures, near absolute zero. y Above the critical temperature, the material may have conventional metallic conductivity or may even be an insulator. y As the temperature drops below the critical point,Tc, resistivity rapidly drops to zero and current can flow freely without any resistance.

Cont.
Superconductors have two outstanding features: 1). Zero electrical resistivity. y This means that an electrical current in a superconducting ring continues indefinitely until a force is applied to oppose the current. 2). The magnetic field inside a bulk sample is zero (the Meissner effect). y When a magnetic field is applied current flows in the outer skin of the material leading to an induced magnetic field that exactly opposes the applied field. y The material is strongly diamagnetic as a result. y In the Meissner effect experiment, a magnet floats above the surface of the superconductor

Temperature vs. resistance in metal y Metallic R vs T

y e-p scattering (lattice interactions) at high temperature y Impurities at low temperatures

R Electrical resistance

Lattice (phonon) interactions

Residual Resistance (impurities)

R0

TD/3

Temperature

Temperature vs. resistance in superconductor

y Superconducting R vs T
R

R0

Transition temperature

Tc

Temperature

Cont.
y Superconductivity is the state of zero resistivity y It was first observed by K. onnes in 1911 in mercury y The resistivity of mercury vanish completely below

4.2k

Cont.
y The transition from normal conducting occurring over

a very narrow range of temp. of the order of 0.05k y It is called transition width y Temperature below which resistivity is zero is called transition temperature

Meissner Effect
y When a material makes the transition from the normal to superconducting state, it actively excludes magnetic fields from its interior; this is called the Meissner effect. y This constraint to zero magnetic field inside a superconductor is distinct from the perfect diamagnetism which would arise from its zero electrical resistance. y Zero resistance would imply that if we tried to magnetize a superconductor, current loops would be generated to exactly cancel the imposed field (Lenz s Law).

Superconductor

Bext

Bint = 0

Cont.
B = (H+M) = (1+ )H Where = M/H Where H = applied magnetic field M = magnetization = magnetic susceptibility Since B = 0 in superconducting state As

Cont.
So, M = - H SO, =-1 And also, =
- 1 hence
= 0 i.e. a superconductor exhibits perfect diamagnetism. Because of diamagnetic nature,superconductor material strongly repel external magnets. It leads to a leviation effect

Magnetic Levitation
y Magnetic fields are actively excluded from

superconductors (Meissner effect). y If a small magnet is brought near a superconductor, it will be repelled becaused induced supercurrents will produce mirror images of each pole. y If a small permanent magnet is placed above a superconductor, it can be levitated by this repulsive force.

Types I Superconductors
y There are 30 pure metals which exhibit zero

resistivity at low temperature. y They are called Type I superconductors (Soft Superconductors). y The superconductivity exists only below their critical temperature and below a critical magnetic field strength.

Type I Superconductors

Mat. Be Rh W Ir Lu Hf Ru Os Mo Zr Cd U Ti Zn Ga

Tc (K) 0 0 0.015 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.7 0.92 0.546 0.56 0.2 0.39 0.85 1.083

Mat. Gd* Al Pa Th Re Tl In Sn Hg Ta V La Pb Tc Nb

Tc (K) 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 2.39 3.408 3.722 4.153 4.47 5.38 6.00 7.193 7.77 9.46

Type 1 superconductor

Cont.
y Type 1 exhibits complete meissner effect y Critical field is very low typically 0.1 tesla or less y High magnetic field cannot be produced this way

Types II Superconductors
y Starting in 1930 with lead-bismuth alloys, were found

which exhibited superconductivity; they are called Type II superconductors (Hard Superconductors). y They were found to have much higher critical fields and therefore could carry much higher current densities while remaining in the superconducting state.

Type II Superconductors

Type 2 superconductor

Cont.
y Type 2 are also known as hard,or high field y y y y

superconductors This type of superconductor can exist in a mixed state Type 2 partially admit magnetic flux Type 2 contains two critical field A material can change from type1 to type2 on the substitution of some impurity

The Critical Field

y The critical field, Bc, that destroys the

superconducting effect obeys a parabolic law of the form:

T 2 Bc ! Bo 1  T c
where Bo = constant, T = temperature, Tc = critical temperature. y In general, the higher Tc, the higher Bc.

y The properties of type I superconductors were modeled by the efforts of John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer in what is commonly called the BCS theory. y A key conceptual element in this theory is the pairing of electrons close to the Fermi level into Cooper pairs through interaction with the crystal lattice. y This pairing results from a slight attraction between the electrons related to lattice vibrations; the coupling to the lattice is called a phonon interaction.

BCS Theory of Superconductivity

BCS Theory of Superconductivity

y The electron pairs have a slightly lower energy and leave an energy gap above them on the order of .001 eV which inhibits the kind of collision interactions which lead to ordinary resistivity. y For temperatures such that the thermal energy is less than the band gap, the material exhibits zero resistivity. y Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer received the Nobel Prize in 1972 for the development of the theory of superconductivity.

High Temperature Superconductor (HTS) Ceramics

y Discovered in 1986, HTS ceramics are working at 77 K, saving a great deal of cost as compared to previously known superconductor alloys. y However, as has been noted in a Nobel Prize publication of Bednortz and Muller, these HTS ceramics have two technological disadvantages:
y they are brittle and y they degrade under common environmental influences.

HTS CERAMICS
y HTS materials the most popular is orthorhombic

YBa2Cu3O7-x (YBCO) ceramics. y Nonoxide/intermetallic solid powders including MgB2 or CaCuO2 or other ceramics while these ceramics still have significant disadvantages as compared to YBCO raw material.

YBa 2Cu 3O7

y Discovered by Paul Chu et al. at the University of

Houston in 1987.
y Becomes superconducting at 92K. y Famous as the first material that becomes

superconducting at a temperature above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (77K).

Table I: Transition temperatures in inorganic superconductors

Compound PbMo6S8 SnSe2(Co(C5H5)2)0.33 K3C60 Cs3C60 Ba0.6K0.4BiO3 Lal.85Sr0.l5CuO4 Ndl.85Ce0.l5CuO4 YBa2Cu3O7 Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+d

Tc (K) 12.6 6.1 19.3 40 (15 kbar applied pressure) 30 40 22 90 125 133

Characteristics of superconductor in superconducting state

y The magnetic properties undergo change in the same

way as electrical properties y The specific heat changes discontinuously at the transition temperature y Thermoelectric effect disappear in superconducting state y Entropy is reduced in the superconducting state

CHANGE IN ENTROPY AND HEAT CAPACITY

ENTROPY
y In all superconductor the entropy decrease markedly y Superconductor state is more ordered than normal

state

HEAT CAPACITY
y In normal metals specific heat varies as the absolute

temperature without discontinuity y Heat capacity is discontinuous for superconductor y It shows the presence of energy gap in superconductor

ENERGY GAP
y Energy gap exist in superconducting state y Energy gap determines the thermal properties of

superconductor y Energy gap decrease continuously to zero as temperature reach the transition temperature

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
y The thermal conductivity of superconductor

undergoes a continuous change between the two phases and is usually lower in the superconducting phase suggesting that the electronic contribution drops,the super electrons possibly playing no part in heat transfer

APPLICATION OF SUPERCONDUCTOR
(1)- These materials are used for producing very strong magnetic field of about 50 Tesla, which is much larger than the field obtainable from an electromagnet. (2)- High current densities with zero resistance properties og superconducting materials make useful for strong electromagnets for example, in MRI(magnetic resonance imaging) devices,used in medicine

Cont.
(3)- In superconducting materials, heating loss is zero,therefore power can be transmitted through superconducting cable without loss (4)- these materials can be used to perform logic and storage functions in computers. (5)- Type 2 superconducting materials are mainly utilized for superconducting solenoids. (6)- These are also used in high speed leviated trains.

Cont.
(7)- Recently superconductors have found application in switching elements called cryotrons. (8)- These materials are also used in RF and microwave filters (e.g. for mobile phone base stations). (9)- superconducting Y-Ba-Cu-o is used in antenna applications.

APPLICATIONS:
Superconducting Magnetic Levitation
The track are walls with a continuous series of vertical coils of wire mounted inside. The wire in these coils is not a superconductor. As the train passes each coil, the motion of the superconducting magnet on the train induces a current in these coils, making them electromagnets. The electromagnets on the train and outside produce forces that levitate the train and keep it centered above the track. In addition, a wave of electric current sweeps down these outside coils and propels the train forward.

The Yamanashi MLX01MagLev Train

APPLICATIONS: Power
The cable configuration features a conductor made from HTS wires wound around a flexible hollow core. Liquid nitrogen flows through the core, cooling the HTS wire to the zero resistance state. The conductor is surrounded by conventional dielectric insulation. The efficiency of this design reduces losses.

Superconducting Transmission Cable From American Superconductor

APPLICATIONS: Medical

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scans produce detailed images of soft tissues.

The superconducting magnet coils produce a large and uniform magnetic field inside the patient's body.

Basic Principles of Sound

y Sound is produced by a vibrating body and travels in the form of a wave. y Sound waves travel through materials by vibrating the particles that make up the material. y The pitch of the sound is determined by the frequency of the wave (vibrations or cycles completed in a certain period of time). y Ultrasound is sound with a pitch too high to be detected by the human ear.

Examples of oscillation
ball on a spring pendulum rotating earth

Frequency

Time From the duration of one oscillation T the frequency f (number of oscillations per second) is calculated:

One full oscillation T

Equation of progressive Wave Function wave:

y ! A sin([t  kx)
Amplitude: A Wavelength: P Frequency/Time period: f=1/T Velocity U: U=fP=P/T Energy: E ! 2T 2 mf 2 A2 Intensity: I ! 2T 2 V f 2 A2

Basic Principles of Sound (cont.)

y The measurement of sound waves from crest to crest determines its wavelength ( ). y The time is takes a sound wave to travel a distance of one complete wavelength is the same amount of time it takes the source to execute one complete vibration. y The sound wavelength is inversely proportional to its frequency. ( = 1/f) y Several wave modes of vibration are used in ultrasonic inspection. The most common are longitudinal, shear, and Rayleigh (surface) waves.

Spectrum of sound
Frequency range Hz Description Example

0 - 20 20 - 20.000 > 20.000

Infrasound Audible sound Ultrasound

Earth quake Speech, music Bat, Quartz crystal

Ultrasonics
Definition: the science and exploitation of elastic waves in solids, liquids, and gases, which have a frequency above 20KHz. Frequency range: 20KHz-10MHz Applications: y Non-destructive detection (NDE) y Medical diagnosis y Material characterization y Range finding

Properties of ultrasonic waves

y Ultrasonic waves are very similar to light

waves in that they can be reflected, refracted, and focused. y Reflection and refraction occurs when sound waves interact with interfaces of differing acoustic properties. y In solid materials, the vibrational energy can be split into different wave modes when the wave encounters an interface at an angle other than 90 degrees. y Ultrasonic reflections from the presence of discontinuities or geometric features enables detection and location. y The velocity of sound in a given material is constant and can only be altered by a change in the mode of energy.

Production of ultrasonic
y Ultrasonic waves are generated mainly by three

method (1)-mechanical method (2)-piezoelectric method (3)-magnetostrictive effect

Mechanical method
y This is one of the earlist methods for

producing frequency upto 100kHz with the help of galton s whistle y Since the whistle acts like a organ pipe , the wavelength of the sound is 4 times the length of the column inside the barrel. The millimeter scale on the barrel gives the distance from the closed end of the column to the air-jet opening. After making end correction for the opening , the wavelengths can be obtained as;

Cont.
wavelength( ) = 4*(L+x) or frequency = U/4(L+x) where U is the velocity of air , L and x are respectively the vibrating length of the air column and the end correction , respectively

ELECTROSTATIC METHOD
In this method , a thin conducting film of thickness nearly 50m is placed in front of a fixed electrode seperated by a dielectric film. An alternating voltage is applied to the metallic plates . Mechanical forces at the surface generates ultrasonic waves. The frequency of the wave depends on the applied voltage. When a voltage is impressed between the electrode and the surface of the object it produces an attractive force in the two surfaces given by

Cont.
S/2d where ; V is voltage
F = -V is dielectric constant of air or the material between electrodes is permittivity of vacuum S is surface area d,is the distance between electrodes

Cont.
If a d.c. voltage and an alternating voltage are applied simultaneously, it is possible to generate ultrasonic wave in the test object at the frequency of the alternating voltage. the capacitive , or electrostatic method,has been used in dry contact applications by using mylar or other types of plastic films as dielectric materials between the surface of the test object and the electrodes.A major advantages of this is its broadband capabilities.

Piezoelectric effect
y It was discovered by J. And P. Curie y This effect is best observed in a no. Of crystal like

QUARTZ, TOURMALINE,ROCHILLE SALT etc.

Quartz Crystals
y Highly anisotropic y X-cut: vibration in the direction perpendicular to the cutting direction y Y-cut: vibration in the transverse direction

What is Piezoelectricity?
y Piezoelectricity means pressure electricity , which is used to describe

the coupling between a material s mechanical and electrical behaviors. y Piezoelectric Effect
y

when a piezoelectric material is squeezed or stretched, electric charge is generated on its surface. Conversely, when subjected to a electric voltage input, a piezoelectric material mechanically deforms.

y Inverse Piezoelectric Effect

y

Piezoelectric Effect

+
Battery

Piezoelectrical Crystal (Quartz)

Piezoelectric Effect

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal lattice

Piezoelectric Effect

+
The effect inverses with polarity change

Ultrasonic generation by piezoelctric

y It was found by Langevin in 1917 y He used an electric oscillatory circuit to provide e.m.f.

And the tuning is achieved by a variable condenser y When frequency of valve circuit is equal to the frequency of crystal resonance will occur and the crystal will undergo linear expansion and contractions i.e., the crystal is set into mechanical vibrations

Cont.
y This arrangement is similar to an electrically

maintained vibrator emitting sound waves of definite frequencies y With a moderate size quartz crystal ultrasonic of frequencies 540,000Hz can be produced y To get higher frequencies the plate has to be very thin and strong enough to stand the strain

Piezoelectric Effect
Sound wave with frequency f

U(f)

An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f

Piezoelectric Effect

Short pulse ( < 1 s )

A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystal s resonant frequency f0

Reception of ultrasonic waves

A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces crystal vibration which then causes electrical voltages at the crystal surfaces. Electrical energy Piezoelectrical crystal Ultrasonic wave

Principles of Ultrasonic Inspection where y Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a material
they travel in a straight line and at a constant speed until they encounter a surface.
y At surface interfaces some of the wave energy is reflected and some is transmitted. y The amount of reflected or transmitted energy can be detected and provides information about the size of the reflector. y The travel time of the sound can be measured and this provides information on the distance that the sound has traveled.

Detection of ultrasonic
(1)-Kundt s tube method: Kundt s tube can be used to detect ultrasonic in the same way as it is used to detection of ordinary sound waves (2)Sensitive flame: this method is used to detect the ultrasonic since very high frequencies sound will change the intensity of the flame

Cont.
(3)-Thermal detectors: if a probe of fine platinum wire is placed in the region of ultrasonic we get compression and rarefactions very rapidly at nodes and it causes adiabatic changes, so the platinum probe is alternately heated and cooled in the change of resistance which may be detected by suitable experiment

Cont.
(4)-Piezoelectric detector: if a pair of faces of a piezoelectric crystal like quartz is subjected to waves opposite charges develop on the other pair normal to the first.The change are amplified by an amplifier and then detected by suitable means

Ultrasonic application
INDUSTRY 1-CAVITATION SCINTIFIC WORLD 1-ULTRASONIC MICROSCOPY 2TEMP.PRESSURE MEASUREMENT 3-LENGTH METERS 4- HOLOGRAPHY 5- THICKNESS MEASUREMENT COMMUNICATI ON 1-ECHO SOUNDER(SONA R) 2-DEPTH OF SEA MEDICAL WORLD 1-ULTRASOUND THERAPY 2- MEDICAL DIAGONOSIS 3-ULTRASOUND TREATMENT 4-PHONO CARDIOLOGY 5-DENTAL CUTTING

2-WELDING

3-CLEANING 4-FLOW METERS 5-FOOD INDUSTRY

3-LEVEL METERS

Application of ultrasonic
Velocity in gases and liquids: y To find the velocity of sound in gases and liquids stationary wave method is applied y The velocity of ultrasonic in the medium can be calculated from the relation V=n y This method is suitable for finding the velocity of sound in gases and liquid which are available in small quantities

Bats navigate using ultrasound

Bats: Navigating with ultrasound

y Bats make high-pitched chirps which are too high for

humans to hear. This is called ultrasound

y Like normal sound, ultrasound echoes off objects y The bat hears the echoes and works out what caused them

Dolphins also navigate with ultrasound Submarines use a similar method called sonar We can also use ultrasound to look inside the body

Bats: Navigating with ultrasound

y If a bat hears an echo 0.01 second after it makes a chirp, how

far away is the object?

y Clue 1: the speed of sound in air is 330 ms-1 y Clue 2: The speed of sound equals the distance travelled

divided by the time taken

y Answer: distance = speed x time y Put the numbers in:

distance = 330 x 0.01 = 3.3 m

y But this is the distance from the bat to the object and back

again, so the distance to the object is 1.65 m.

Ultrasound imaging: How does it work?

y An ultrasound element acts like a bat. y Emit ultrasound and detect echoes y Map out boundary of object

Ultrasound imaging: How does it work?

y Now put many elements together to make a probe and create

an image