Materials Testing and Elasticity Stress and Strain Relationship

Materials Testing
To supply routine information on the quality of a product commercial or control testing; To develop new, or better information on known materials or to develop new materials; To obtain accurate measures of fundamental properties or physical constants scientific measurements.

Scientific Testing
The accumulation of an orderly and reliable fund of information on the fundamental and useful rate analyses of structural behavior and for efficient design.

Significance of Testing
Our concepts of the properties of materials are usually idealized and oversimplified. Actually, we do not determine properties, in the sense that some unchanging values are obtained which once and for all describe the behaviour of some material.

Types of Materials Testing

Tension Test Compression Test Shear Test Bending Test Hardness Test

Types of Materials Testing

Impact Test Fatigue Test Low and High Temperature Test Non-destructive Testing

Hardness Test
Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by precise definitions in terms of fundamental units of mass, length and time. A hardness property value is the result of a defined measurement procedure.

Hardness Test
Five Determining Factors Material - grain size, metal, rubber, etc. Approximate Hardness - hardened steel, rubber, etc. Shape - thickness, size, etc. Heat Treatment through or casehardened, annealed, etc. Production Requirements - sample or 100%

Hardness Test
Brinell Hardness Test Knoop Hardness Test Rockwell Hardness Test Vickers Hardness Test Leeb Hardness Test Mohs Hardness Test

Compression Test
Method for determining behavior of materials under crushing loads. Specimen is compressed, and deformation at various loads is recorded.

Compression Test
Compressive stress and strain are calculated and plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is used to determine elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength and (for some materials) compressive strength

Compression Test
The following materials are typically subjected to a compression test.  Concrete  Metals  Plastics  Ceramics  Composites  Corrugated Cardboard

Impact Testing
Impact testing is testing an object's ability to resist high-rate loading. An impact test is a test for determining the energy absorbed in fracturing a test piece at high velocity. Most of us think of it as one object striking another object at a relatively high speed.

Impact Testing
Impact resistance is one of the most important properties for a part designer to consider, and without question, the most difficult to quantify. The impact resistance of a part is, in many applications, a critical measure of service life. More importantly these days, it involves the perplexing problem of product safety and liability.

Fatigue Test
applying cyclic loading to your test specimen to understand how it will perform under similar conditions in actual use. The load application can either be a repeated application of a fixed load or simulation of in-service loads. The load application may be repeated millions of times and up to several hundred times per second.

Fatigue Test
In many applications, materials are subjected to vibrating or oscillating forces. The behavior of materials under such load conditions differs from the behavior under a static load.

Fatigue Test
Because the material is subjected to repeated load cycles (fatigue) in actual use, designers are faced with predicting fatigue life, which is defined as the total number of cycles to failure under specified loading conditions. Fatigue testing gives much better data to predict the in-service life of materials.

Fatigue Test
Some typical materials that are subjected to fatigue testing: Metals Polymers Composites Elastomers Structural Components Ceramics

Bend Test
Bend testing measures the ductility of materials. Terms associated with bend testing apply to specific forms or types of materials. Bend testing provides a convenient method for characterizing the strength of the miniature components and specimens that are typical of those found in microelectronics applications.

Rheology Testing
Rheology testing is measuring the deformation of matter under the influence of imposed stress, by analyzing the internal response of materials to forces. Polymer flow characteristics are critical in all the conversion and production processes: the material is forced to flow and the rheological characteristics determine the processability.

Flexure Test
The flexure test method measures behavior of materials subjected to simple beam loading. It is also called a transverse beam test with some materials. Maximum fiber stress and maximum strain are calculated for increments of load. Results are plotted in a stress-strain diagram.

Tension Test
A tensile test, also known as tension test, is probably the most fundamental type of mechanical test you can perform on material. Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized.

Tension Test
By pulling on something, you will very quickly determine how the material will react to forces being applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, you will find its strength along with how much it will elongate.

Tension Test
You can learn a lot about a substance from tensile testing. As you continue to pull on the material until it breaks, you will obtain a good, complete tensile profile. A curve will result showing how it reacted to the forces being applied. The point of failure is of much interest and is typically called its "Ultimate Strength" or UTS on the chart.

Non-destructive Testing
a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage.

Destructive Testing
In destructive testing, tests are carried out to the specimen's failure, in order to understand a specimen's structural performance or material behavior under different loads. These tests are generally much easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier to interpret than nondestructive testing.

PRECISION vs ACCURACY

Precision
-pertains to the closeness to one another of a set of repeated observations of a random variable. -ability to repeat a series of measurements and get the same value each time -refers to the repeatability of the process

Accuracy
Refers to the ability to hit what is aimed at (the bull s eye of the target) Refers to how far from the actual or real value the measurement is agreement of a measured value with an expected value

Example One can say that a measurement is accurate but not precise; precise but not accurate; neither or both. An example of bad precision and good accuracy can be: Suppose a lab refrigerator holds a constant temperature of 38.0 F. A temperature sensor is tested 10 times in the refrigerator. The temperatures from the test yield the temperatures of: 37.8, 38.3, 38.1, 38.0, 37.6, 38.2, 38.0, 38.0, 37.4, 38.3. This distribution shows no impressive tendency toward a particular value (lack of precision) but each value does come close to the actual temperature (high accuracy). Target comparison Accuracy is the degree of veracity while precision is the degree of reproducibility. Target comparison can be used to explain this difference between the two terms. If arrows are fired at a target and measurements are taken then accuracy will describe the closeness of the arrows to the bulls eye at the target center. Arrows that strike closer to the bull's-eye are considered more accurate. The closer a system's measurements to the accepted value, the more accurate the system is considered to be. If a large number of arrows are fired, precision would be the size of the arrow cluster. (When only one arrow is fired, precision is the size of the cluster one would expect if this were repeated many times under the same conditions.) When all arrows are grouped tightly together, the cluster is considered precise since they all struck close to the same spot, if not necessarily near the bull's-eye. The measurements are precise, though not necessarily accurate. However, it is not possible to reliably achieve accuracy in individual measurements without precision.

Precision VS Accuracy

 Number of measurements Another difference between the two can be that accuracy can be determined by one measurement while many measurements are needed to determine precision. In the above example, by just one arrow fired, one knows if it is accurate or no but a number of arrows have to be fired to know if the result is precise or no. Quality While a precise measurement may speak highly of an instruments quality, an accurate reading will not reflect on the quality. Accuracy is an agreement of a measured value with an expected value. Another example: A stopped clock will be accurate twice in day, but it will not be precise - a reflection on its quality. If a clock reflects the right time in 10 readings at 10 different points in time it can be considered precise and therefore of high quality.

Bias (don't let precision fool you!)

If you measure something several times and all values are close, they may all be wrong if there is a Bias Bias is a systematic (built-in) error which makes all measurements wrong by a certain amount.

STRESS and STRAIN

STRESS  characterizes the strength of the forces causing
the deformation.

STRAIN
resulting deformation.

Three Types of Static Stresses

Tensile Stresses
Tend to stretch the material

Compressive Stresses
Tend to squeeze it

Shear Stresses
Tend to cause adjacent portions of the material to slide against each other.

Two Different Types of Stress-Strain curves under tensile stress:

Engineering Stress-Strain True Stress-Strain

Engineering Stress-Strain
Defined relative to the original area and length of the test specimen.

Engineering Stress
s = F/ Ao s = engineering stress F = applied force in the test Ao = original area of the test specimen

 Engineering Strain
e = L-LO LO e = engineering strain L = length at any point during the elongation LO = original gage length

Hookes Law > states that the strain is directly proportional to

the stress s = Ee s = engineering stress e = engineering strain E = modulus of elasticity
Typical engineering stress-strain plot in a tensile test of a metal.

 Elastic region the relationship between stress and strain is linear - if the response of the metal to the removal of the load is to return to its original shape Plastic Behavior if the load is increased and the strain is great enough to stretch the metal beyond its elastic limit, thus causing permanent deformation. Necking the process by which a ductile material deforms under tension forming a thin neck.

 Yield point defined as the point at which strain occurs without a concurrent increase in stress . - Plastic deformation is observed at this point. Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength denoted by TS, applied load reaches a maximum value. Maximum Load it occurs before necking begin. Fracture / Breaking Strength is a point at which the specimen fractures.

True Stress-Strain
- Provides a more realistic assessment of the instantaneous elongation per unit length of the material. =F/A = true stress F = force A = actual (instantaneous) area resisting the load

True stress-strain curve for the previous engineering stress- strain plot

Difference between Engineering and True Stress- Strain curve

In engineering stress-strain curve we use the original cross sectional area, while true stressstrain use the deformed cross sectional area in dividing the applied load.

Types of Stress-Strain Relationship:

Perfectly elastic The behavior of this material is defined completely by its stiffness, indicated by the modulus of elasticity E. these materials are not good candidates for forming operations.

 Elastic and Perfectly plastic this material has a stiffness defined by E. Metals behave in this fashion when they have been heated to sufficiently high temperatures that they recrystallize rather than strain harden during deformation. Elastic and Strain hardening this material obeys Hookes law in the elastic region. Most ductile metal behave this way when cold worked.

Modulus of Elasticity
In solid mechanics, Young's modulus (also known as the modulus of elasticity or elastic modulus) is a measure of the Stiffness of a given material. It is defined as the limit for small strains of the rate of change of stress with strain. This can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material.

Modulus of Elasticity
a measure of how a material or structure will deform and strain when placed under stress. a measure of stiffness and for most materials remains constant over a range of stress. a measure of the stiffness of an elastic material and is a quantity used to characterize materials.

Modulus of Elasticity
defined as the ratio of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain in the range of stress in which Hooke's Law holds.

Stiffness
Young's modulus is a more specific property than "stiffness". Young's modulus is one example of a measure of stiffness of a material. Stiffness is a VERY GENERAL term.

Stiffness
is a term used to describe the resistance of a material in the elastic range of the stress-strain diagram resistance of an elastic body to deflection or deformation by an applied force. It is an extensive material property.

A student asks: I had a question about how stiffness relates to elasticity. Does a high stiffness mean high or low elasticity?

About elasticity: Saying a material has a high stiffness doesn't say anything about its elasticity. But it does say something about its elastic modulus. Don't worry - many people get confused at first on this topic. I will attempt to explain why. You may recall that when a stress is applied to a material, the material deforms. This deformation is called strain. If the material returns to its original shape when the stress is removed, then we say that: a) the material behaved in an elastic manner, b) the response was elastic, and /or c) the strains were elastic. If, when the stress is removed, the material does not return to its original shape, we say that it accumulated permanent deformation or plastic strain.

For Isotropic Materials, like metal, plastic, or rubber: A stiff material does not deform much when a stress is applied. A stiff material has a high elastic modulus. If someone asks "what is the stiffness of this material?", the answer is usually "the value of the elastic modulus is X MPa". A compliant material does deform a lot when a stress is applied. A compliant material has a low elastic modulus. If someone asks "what is the compliance of this material?" the person will usually scratch their head and finally say "Um, well, um...the elastic modulus is X MPa". But the correct answer would be "the inverse of the elastic modulus is Y m^2/N." What confuses a lot of people is that difference between elasticity and elastic modulus. Elasticity is technically just the theory of materials that are assumed not to deform permanently. This is true when stresses are less than the materials yield strength.

But in general, people say a material has a high elasticity, or is highly elastic, if it can be stretched to large strains without failure. Rubber is an example of a highly elastic material. The problem is, that RUBBER IS HIGHLY ELASTIC (can be stretched a lot without being deformed permanently or breaking) BUT IT HAS A LOW ELASTIC MODULUS (large strains are caused by relatively small stresses). There are not very many materials with both a high elastic modulus and high elasticity. For Anisotropic Materials, like composites or wood: Stiffness and compliance have the same meanings. But, we have to quantify them with matrices since the composite has different stiffness properties in different directions. To be precise, we should refer to the terms of the [Q] matrix as 'stiffness components' and the terms of the [S] matrix as 'compliance components'. However, since [Q] and [S] are inversely related, and are both the result of the theory of elasticity, we often call the terms of both of them 'elastic terms'. Just to be lazy, I guess. No term in the [Q] or [S] matrices should ever be called 'elastic modulus', however. This is becuase Elastic Modulus has a mathematical definition: (elastic modulus) = (stress)/(strain) when there is only one stress applied to the material. More confused now? Just remember: A material with a high elastic modulus, or large [Q] terms, is stiff (or has high stiffness). A material with high elasticity can be stretched a lot without failing.

 The stiffness, k, of a body is where P is the applied force is the deflected distance In the International System of Units, stiffness is typically measured in newtons per metre. ROTATIONAL STIFFNESS A body may also have a rotational stiffness, k, given by where M is the applied moment is the rotation In the SI system, rotational stiffness is typically measured in newton-metres per radian.

Further measures of stiffness are derived on a similar basis, including: SHEAR STIFFNESS - ratio of applied shear force to shear deformation TORSIONAL STIFFNESS - ratio of applied torsion moment to angle of twist

Use in engineering
The stiffness of a structure is of principal importance in many engineering applications, so the modulus of elasticity is often one of the primary properties considered when selecting a material. A high modulus of elasticity is sought when deflections are undesirable, while a low modulus of elasticity is required when flexibility is needed.