Dr. Gopalrao Jogdand, M.D. PhD. (U.S.A.) Professor & Head, Department of Community Medicine.

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF DISSERTATION/THESIS

Dissertation
 Why a dissertation?  Just for fulfilling the requirement for a doctoral degree program.  For learning how to conduct medical research scientifically.  Basic requirement for starting career as a researcher.

Types of research
     

Quantitative research: Aim is to measure certain variables. Estimation of population parameters. Statistical testing of hypothesis. Qualitative research: Mainly concerned with obtaining information about certain population characteristics such as socio- economic status, concepts about health, health seeking behaviour, utilization of health services.

Selecting a research topic

 After rigorous scanning of medical literature, studying relevant material from the internet or guidance from the guide/Supervisor.  A blue print of the research topic is formed in the mind of a postgraduate student.  This idea can be further crystallized by collecting references from various sources.  Avoid duplication or collection of trash references.

Planning
 Administrative feasibility: Check for available research    

facilities in your institution or the collaborating agency. Procure administrative clearance from the ethical committee. Procure permission from the agency where the study has to be conducted. Procure Informed consent of study participants/patients. Operational feasibility in field based research studies/community based studies assess the participation and co-operation of the study population and the resources required. Financial feasibility.

Scanning the medical literature

 Collection and review of relevant literature.  Searching for cumulative index medicus in the library.  Index medicus is available in two forms:

a. Author index. b. Subject index.  Collecting references from National and International journals.

Resources on the net

            

List of some Important Internet websites:1. http://www.isoc.net 2. http://www.medlineplus.gov 3. http://www.clinicaltrials.gov 4. http://www.hon.ch 5. http://www.nlm.nih.gov 6. http://www.biosis.org 7. http://www.sis.nim.nih.gov 8. http://www.healthnet.org.za 9. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov 10. http://www.reliefweb.int 11. http://www.nic.in 12. http://www.pubmed.com

Selection of a study design

 This will depend on the research question and the best possible way to address it.  Descriptive studies: 1. Case report and case series. 2. correlation studies. Observational studies 3. cross-sectional surveys.  Analytical studies: 1. case control studies.

2. Cohort studies. 3. Experimental studies.

Preparation of a study protocol

         

Research question. Rationale and apriori hypothesis on the study. Review of literature. Aims and objectives. Preparation and validation of questionnaire, by pilot study. Material and methods. Summarization of data and statistical analysis. Appendices. Summary. Bibliography.

Sampling strategies
 Why sample size?  For addressing the research question scientifically and for avoiding certain biases and fallacies.  Chance bias.  Statistical fallacies.

Basic concepts

Population: Universe: Reference populn: Parent Population:

A group of individuals in which the researcher is interested

The Process or Technique of selecting a sample of appropriate characteristics and adequate size

Sample:

Subset of the population Total elements of the survey population, redefined according to certain specifications

Sampling Frame:

Parameters:

Summary Measures e.g. Averages; Percentages. Summary measures of sample

Sample Statistics:

Sampling error:

The difference between population parameter and sample statistics

Basic Requirements of a Reliable Sample

Efficiency:

ability to yield desired information

Representativeness:

Similarity to reference

population.

Measurability:valid estimates of variability Size:adequacy Coverage:inclusion Goal Orientation:oriented to research design,

objectives

Sampling Procedures

Non-probability Samples: # # # Incidental Quota Purposive

Probability Samples

Multi Phase Sampling: Sequential Sampling (Quality control): Panel Sampling:

Random Sampling

All members have equal chance of selection List all members of population Random selection: Dice, Coins, Lottery, pages of book Random tables, calculator, computer

Area Sampling

Stratification of area through maps Random selection: Dice, Coins, Lottery, pages of book Random tables, calculator, computer
Systematic Sampling

First is chosen randomly Others are chosen systematically

Cluster Sampling

Enumeration of sampling Units Cumulative counting. Random selection: First Cluster unit selection Each cluster 7 units selection by random. Total 30 clusters. A total of 210 units Most commonly used method

Multiphase Sampling

Collect basic data from large sample Collect details from sub sample.

Sequential Sampling

First select small sample If questions are not answered, increase the sample size. Quality control methods in industries utilize this method

Panel Sampling

Randomly select sample. Collect data at frequent intervals. Trend has to be studied. Sentinel surveillance data; Nutritional monitoring data; social changes.

Examples:

Analytical Method: Pre-requisites

G G G G G
Sampling Error Prevalence of the condition Variability between sampling units (SD) Desired level of statistical significance (CI) Degree of difference/ Strength of Association to be detected

G E-

error and

F-

error

Pre-requisites
G
Design of the study:
* estimating average or proportion * Difference between two averages or proportions

Sampling Error
Disparity between the true parameter and the sample statistic:

Sampling error =

1/n

n = sample size * Larger the sample, lesser the sample error

Sampling Error
Errors Sampling Non-Sampling Coverage Type of controls Processing errors Observational errors

Prevalence
If the prevalence of the condition is more; then sample size will be smaller:

Variability between sampling units (SD)

; Can be known by exploratory/ pilot study

eg. Weight gain in children after dietary supplementation

Error
Less tolerable error = more the sample size:

How to get a sample size

1 1 1

Consult a statistician Refer to tables already available a. For prevalence studies b. For comparison groups Calculate a. Prevalence study( mean, proportions) no = Z2 pq / e2
Z2 = abscissa of the normal curve that cuts off an area E at the tails

p = prevalence e = desired level of precision

How to get a sample size

In estimating Average or Proportion: 1. Parameter to be estimated 2. Degree of precision

(tolerable Sampling error)

3. Desired confidence level 4. Estimated variability (SD)

significance between proportions/ Means:

1. .

Amount of difference of importance

2. Size of w and F error 3. Estimated variability (SD)

How to get a sample size

1 Statistical Software.

Thank You