Piagets

Theory Vygotskys Theory Gagnes Theory Brunners Theoty Ausubels Theory

Background
 Born in Neuchatel in France (1896)  Published his first professional paper at age of 11.  Was awarded PhD at age of 21.  Become interested in psychology after careful observation on his own child.

 Piaget: Cognitive Development.

Learning is the process of changing the thinking pattern which is the cognitive structure.

Piaget: Cognitive Development. Key Concept in Piagets Theory

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Schemes Organization Adaptation Assimilation Accommodation Equilibration

Schemes 1. organized pattern of behavior and thought 2. help us to adapt to our environment 3. can be classified as behavioral (grasping, driving, cycling) or cognitive (problem solving
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Organization 1. Tendency to systemize processes 2. Enable us to engage in more complex thinking

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Adaptation Tendency to adjust to environment Consist of:

a. b. Assimilation- new experience is fitted into existing scheme Accommodation-scheme is created or revised to fit with new experience.

Equilibration 1. Tendency to organize schemes to allow better understanding of experiences 2. Organization and adaptation are needed to achieve and maintain equilibration.
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Stages Of Development 1.Sensorimotor (birth- 2 years old)

   Develop their schemes based on physical interaction with environment Develop ability to imitate. Features: a. Egocentrism b. object permanence

2.Preoperational Stage ( 2-6 years old)

    Perception dominates child thinking Learn huge number of concept Egocentrism Irreversibility

3.Concrete Stage (7- 11years old)

   
Operate logically with concrete materials Seriation Classification Conversation

4.Formal Operational (11 above)

 
Can examine abstract problems systematically and generalize about the result. 3 characteristics of thinking 1. Abstractly 2. Systematically 3. Hyphotically

Implication of Piagets Theory

 Begin lesson with concrete object or material and gradually shift to more abstract level  Use their old experience to develop new experiences  Develop their intrinsic motivation and encourage them to participate actively in learning process.  Lesson plan should include opportunities for activity, manipulation, exploration, discussion and application of information.

Background
 Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)  Russian psyshologist  Believes development was life long process which was too complex to be defined by stages.  Provided an alternative view that emphasizes social and cultural influence on the child developing mind.

Vygotskys Theory of Learning

 Known as socio-cultural development.  Emphasize on influence of culture, peers and adult in development of child.  Role of adult- explain, give direction, give feed back and guide communication.  Discussed about importance of cultural tools (book, computer, tradition) to the socio-cultural approach.  By participate in cultural events and using the tools of society, the child learn what is important in his culture.

Role of Language
 Vygotsky believed that we encode and represent our world through language.  Is as socio-cultural tools.  Symbolic system by which we communicate.  The role of language is central to Vygotskys theory.  Through social interaction, language gives learner access to knowledge other already have.

Role of Language in Cognitive Development Vygotsky believed that language has two purposes
 Communication- important in transmission of culture and history between people  Regulation- refers to ones control over ones own cognitive processes (eg. Thought, memory, etc). The goal is to make transition from otherregulated to self regulated.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

 Is the difference between what child can do by himself and what can be accomplish with some assistance .  Stages in ZPD :
1. 2. 3. 4. Assistance provided by self. Assistance provided by more knowledgable other ( MKO). Automatization through practice. Deautomatization ( recursiveness through previous three stages).

 Scaffolding-the process of guiding the learner from what is presently known to what is to be known. Occurs in ZPD. The more competent person support the learner to reach new level of development.

Implication of Vygotskys Theory

1. Teacher should give guidance if pupils could not solve the problem independently. 2. Teacher should emphasizes on social interaction through group work. 3. Teacher lets the pupils solve the problem by giving guidance. 4. Teacher demonstrates the method in teaching and learning process. 5. Teacher should guide pupils to solve problem by giving cues or hint.

Background
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Robert M. Gagne was born 1916 in North Andover, Massachusetts Gagn received a B.A. from Yale in 1937 Gagn receive his Ph.D. in Psychology from Brown University in 1940 Gagn becomes a professor of psychology at Princeton University in 1958 Wrote The Conditions of Learning, 1965 Collaborated with L.J. Briggs in writing the Principles of Instructional Design as well as two additional editions of The Conditions of Learning

Event of Learning
 Gagne believed that an external observer could recognize learning by noting behavioral changes that remains persistent over time.  He also stated that maturation is not learning because the individual does not receive stimulation from the outside environment.  Learning has two parts, one that is external to the learner and one that is internal.

Gagne 8 Phases in Learning Process

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Motivation Phase Expectancy Apprehending Phase Attention Selective Perception Acquisition Phase Coding: Storage Entry Retention Phase Memory Storage Recall Phase Retrieval Generalization Phase Transfer Performance Phase Responding Feedback Phase -- Reinforcement

Five Categories of Learning

 Verbal Information  Intellectual Skills  Cognitive Strategies  Attitudes  Motor Skills

Verbal
 Stating previously learned materials such as facts, concepts, principles, and procedures  Critical Learning Conditions
1. 2. 3. 4. Draw attention to distinctive features by variations in print or speech. Present information so that it can be made into chunks. Provide a meaningful context for effective encoding of information. Provide cues for effective recall and generalization of information.

Intellectual skills
o o o o o Discriminations: Distinguishing objects, features, or symbols, e.g.,
hearing different pitches played on a musical instrument or events, e.g., picking out all the green M&Ms from the candy jar their definition, e.g., noting "she sells sea shells" as alliteration

Concrete Concepts: Identifying classes of concrete objects, features, Defined Concepts: classifying new examples of events or ideas by

calculating the earned run averages (ERA) of the Atlanta Braves

Rules: Applying a single relationship to solve a class of problems, e.g.,

Higher Order Rules: Applying a new combination of rules to solve a complex problem, e.g., generating a balanced budget for a state organization

Intellectual skills
Critical Learning Conditions  Call attention to distinctive features.  Stay within the limits of working memory.  Stimulate the recall of previously learned component skills.  Present verbal cues to the ordering or combination of component skills.  Schedule occasions for practice and spaced review.  Use a variety of contexts to promote transfer.

Cognitive Strategies Employing personal ways to guide learning, thinking, acting, and feeling Critical Learning Conditions
1. 2. 3. Describe or demonstrate the strategy. Provide a variety of occasions for practice using the strategy. Provide informative feedback as to the creativity or originality of the strategy or outcome.

Attitude
 Choosing personal actions based on internal states of understanding and feeling.  Critical Learning Conditions
1. Establish an expectancy of success associated with the desired attitude. 2. Assure student identification with an admired human model. 3. Arrange for communication or demonstration of choice of personal action. 4. Give feedback for successful performance; or allow observation of feedback in the human model.

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Motor Skills Executing performances involving the use muscles Critical Learning Conditions
1. Present verbal or other guidance to cue the executive subroutine. 2. Arrange repeated practice. 3. Furnish immediate feedback as to the accuracy of performance. 4. Encourage the use of mental practice.

The Event of The Lesson

 Gagn believed that all lessons should include these key points
1. 2. 3. 4.
5.

Activating motivation Informing the learner of the objective Directing attention Stimulating recall
Providing learned guidance Enhancing retention Promoting transfer of learning Eliciting the performance and providing feedback

6. 7. 8.

Implication of Theory
 Teacher use concrete material during teaching language.  Teacher teach skills according to sequence.  Teacher educate students to differentiate important characteristics  Teacher educate students to identify specific characteristics to build concept and rules  Teacher guide students to use principles, rules and theories to solve problem.

Background
 Jerome Bruner was born in New York in 1915. At the age of 2 he underwent operations to correct vision impaired due to cataracts.  His father died when Jerome was 12, after which the family moved frequently and Jerome had an education interrupted by frequent changes of school.  Despite this, Bruner s grades were good enough to enter Duke University in Durham, NC where he obtained a B.A. in 1937 followed by a Ph.D. from Harvard in 1941.

Bruner was Professor of Psychology at Harvard (1952-1972) and Watts Professor at Oxford (19721980), and has spent time at the New York University School of Law and the New School for Social Research in New York City. For the past 45 years Bruner has been a leader in the establishment of cognitive psychology as an alternative to the behaviourist theories that dominated psychology in the first half of the 20th century.

Bruner received many awards and honours, including the International Balzan Prize (for his lifelong contribution to the understanding of the human mind), by the CIBA Gold Medal for Distinguished Research and the Distinguished Scientific Award of the American Psychological Association. Bruner is currently Research Professor of Psychology and Senior Research Fellow in Law at New York University. Over the past 40 years he has published many books, including The Process of Education (1960), Acts of Meaning (1991) and The Culture of Education (1996).

Discovery Learning
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Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner demonstrated how thought processes could be subdivided into three distinct modes of reasoning. While Piaget related each mode to a specific period of childhood development, Bruner saw each mode as dominant during each developmental phase, but present and accessible throughout.

Bruners model of human development as a combination of enactive skills (manipulating objects, spatial awareness), iconic skills (visual recognition, the ability to compare and contrast) and symbolic skills (abstract reasoning) . He defined cognitive processes as the means whereby organisms achieve, retain and transform information.

Bruner suggested that people remember things with a view towards meaning and signification, not toward the end of somehow preserving the facts themselves. Bruner believed that education is a process of discovery. As a structural theorist, Bruner believes that information or knowledge is most effectively gained by personal discovery, and then classified enactively, iconically or symbolically.

Bruner advocated that if students were allowed to pursue concepts on their own they would gain a better understanding. Within the education system, a teacher would then engage students in active dialogue and guide them when necessary so that students would progressively build their own knowledge base, rather than be taught.

New information would be classified and understood based on knowledge already gained.

Bruners theory of how children construct knowledge involves three basic modes of instruction. In early years young children rely extensively upon enactive modes to learn. As a child learns to roll over, sit up or walk, they are learning to do so through their own actions. While this mode is present in people of all ages it is more dominant when a person is young. An example of this dominance is the way a young person can often learn to play a musical instrument more quickly than an older person.

i)

ii) In childhood years.

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Iconic representation normally becomes dominant during the next stage of childhood years. Children learn to understand what pictures and diagrams are and how to do arithmetic using numbers and without counting objects.

iii)Around adolescence
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the symbolic mode of learning becomes most dominant. Students can understand and work with concepts that are abstract.

According to Bruner, developmental growth involves mastering each of the increasingly more complex modes - enactive to iconic to symbolic. Mastering this incorporates becoming more skilled in translating between each mode. An example of this sort of translation could be a discussion (symbolic mode) of what students had learned from an experiment (iconic mode).

Teacher organizes the class so that the students learn through their own active involvement. Encourage informed guessing by asking leading questions. Use variety of materials and games. Let students satisfy their curiosity even if they pursue ideas not directly related to the lesson.

Background.
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David Ausubel was an American psychologist who did his undergraduate work at the University of Pennsylvania (pre-med and psychology). He graduated from medical school at Middlesex University. Later he earned a Ph.D in Developmental Psychology at Columbia University.

He was influenced by the work of Piaget. He served on the faculty at several universities and retired from academic life in 1973 and began his practice in psychiatry. Dr. Ausubel published several textbooks in developmental and educational psychology, and more than 150 journal articles. He was awarded the Thorndike Award for "Distinguished Psychological Contributions to Education" by the American Psychological Association (1976).

In this approach, teachers present materials in a carefully organized, sequenced, and somewhat finished form, and students thus receive the most usable material in the most efficient way. He believes that learning should progress, not inductively as Bruner recommends but deductively :from general to the specific, or from the rule or principle to examples.

Phases of Expository Teaching.

Presentation of advance organizer

Presentation of Learning Task or materials.

Strengthening Cognitive Organization.

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Phase One: Presentation of Advance Organizer. The advance organizer relates the ideas to be presented in a lesson to information already in students minds, and provides a broad organizational scheme for the more specific information to be presented. Phase Two: Presentation of Learning Task or materials.

The new material is presented by means of lectures, discussions,films or students s tasks. Ausubel emphasized the need to maintain student attention, as well as the need for a clear organization of the material to correspond to the structure laid out in the advance organizer. He suggests a process called progressive differentiation, which is a step by step progression from general concept to specific information,illustrative examples and contrast between new and old concepts.

Phase Three: Strengthening Cognitive Organization. The teachers try to tie the new information into the structure laid out at the beginning of the lesson by reminding students of how each specific details relate to the big picture. Students are questioned to see if they have understood the lesson and if they can relate it to their prior knowledge.

In this approach, the teachers present materials in a carefully organized, sequenced, and students thus receive the most usable materials in the most efficient way. The function is to provide scaffolding or support for the new information.

Can serve three purposes : i) Direct your attention to what is important in the coming materials
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ii) Highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented iii) Remind you of relevant information you already have.
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The advance organizer do help students learn, especially when the materials to be learned is quite familiar or difficult(Corkill,1992;Mayer,1984;Shuell,1981b)

However,the effect of advance organizers deend on how good they are and how students actually used them.

Organise instruction beforehand in a way that leads from the most general concepts to the most inclusive details. Plan brief class discussions before new material is presented so students can share important background information.