Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2nd Ed.

Nivaldo Tro

Chapter 1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

Roy Kennedy Massachusetts Bay Community College Wellesley Hills, MA

Composition of Matter
Atoms Molecules Scientific Method

Structure Determines Properties

The properties of matter are determined by the
atoms and molecules that compose it
carbon monoxide 1. composed of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom 2. colorless, odorless gas 3. burns with a blue flame 4. binds to hemoglobin carbon dioxide 1. composed of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms 2. colorless, odorless gas 3. incombustible 4. doesnt bind to hemoglobin

Atoms and Molecules

Atoms
 are submicroscopic particles  are fundamental building blocks of ordinary matter

Molecules
 are two or more atoms attached together in a specific geometric arrangement
 attachments are called bonds  attachments come in different strengths

 come in different shapes and patterns

Chemistry is the science that seeks to understand

the behavior of matter by studying the behavior of atoms and molecules
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The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Philosophers try to understand the universe by

reasoning and thinking about ideal behavior Scientists try to understand the universe through empirical knowledge gained through observation and experiment

Gathering Empirical Knowledge Observation Some observations are descriptions of the

characteristics or behavior of nature qualitative
 The coke is a liquid with a brown color and a sweet taste. Bubbles are seen floating up through it.

Some observations compare a characteristic to

a standard numerical scale quantitative
 A 240 mL serving of soda contains 27 g of sugar.

From Observation to Understanding Hypothesis a tentative interpretation or

explanation for an observation
The sweet taste of soda pop is due to the presence of sugar.

A good hypothesis is one that can be tested

to be proved wrong!
falsifiable one test may invalidate your hypothesis

Testing Ideas Ideas in science are tested with experiments An experiment is a set of highly controlled
procedures designed to test whether an idea about nature is valid The experiment generates observations that will either validate or invalidate the idea

From Specific to General Observations A scientific law is a statement that

summarizes all past observations and predicts future observations
Law of Conservation of Mass In a chemical reaction matter is neither created nor destroyed.

A scientific law allows you to predict future

observations
so you can test the law with experiments

Unlike criminal laws, you cannot choose to

violate a scientific law!
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From Specific to General Understanding A hypothesis is a potential explanation for a

single or small number of observations A scientific theory is a general explanation for why things in nature are the way they are and behave the way they do
models pinnacle of scientific knowledge validated or invalidated by experiment and observation

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Scientific Method
Procedure designed to test an idea Tentative explanation of a single or small number of observations

Careful noting and recording of natural phenomena

General explanation of natural phenomena Generally observed occurrence in nature

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Relationships Between Pieces of the Scientific Method

12

Classification of Matter
States of Matter Physical and Chemical Properties Physical and Chemical Changes

Classification of Matter Matter is anything that has mass and

occupies space We can classify matter based on its state and its composition
whether it is solid, liquid, or gas what are its basic components

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Classifying Matter by Physical State Matter can be classified as solid, liquid, or gas
based on the characteristics it exhibits

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Solids
The particles in a solid are packed
close together and are fixed in position
 though they may vibrate

The close packing of the particles

results in solids being incompressible The inability of the particles to move around results in solids retaining their shape and volume when placed in a new container, and prevents the solid from flowing
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Crystalline Solids Some solids have their

particles arranged in patterns with long-range repeating order we call these crystalline solids
salt diamonds sugar

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Amorphous Solids Some solids have their

particles randomly distributed without any long-range pattern we call these amorphous solids
some plastics glass charcoal rubber
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Liquids
The particles in a liquid are
closely packed, but they have some ability to move around The close packing results in liquids being incompressible The ability of the particles to move allows liquids to take the shape of their container and to flow however, they dont have enough freedom to escape or expand to fill the container
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Gases
In the gas state, the particles
have freedom of motion They are not held together The particles are constantly flying around, bumping into each other and the container In the gas state, on average, there is a lot of empty space between the particles

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Gases Since there is a lot of empty

space, the particles can be squeezed closer together
gases are compressible

Because the particles are

not held in close contact and are moving freely
gases expand to fill their container and take its shape gases will flow

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Classifying Matter by Composition Another way to classify matter is to examine its

composition Composition includes
types of particles arrangement of the particles attachments between the particles attractions between the particles

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Classification of Matter by Composition

Matter, whose composition does not change from
one sample to another, is called a pure substance
 consists of a single type of atom or molecule  because the composition of a pure substance is always the same, all samples have the same physical characteristics

Matter whose composition may vary from one

sample to another is called a mixture
 two or more types of atoms or molecules combined in variable proportions  because the composition varies, different samples have different characteristics
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Classification of Matter by Composition

1. made of one type of particle 2. all samples show the same intensive properties
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1. made of multiple types of particles 2. samples may show different intensive properties

Classification of Pure Substances Elements

Pure substances that cannot be
decomposed into simpler substances by chemical reactions are called elements
decomposed = broken down elements are the basic building blocks of matter elements are composed of single type of atom
elements can exist as atoms or can be combined into molecules

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Classification of Pure Substances Compounds

Pure substances that can be decomposed are
called compounds
chemical combinations of elements have molecules that contain two or more different kinds of atoms all molecules of a compound are identical, so all samples of a compound behave the same way

Most natural pure substances are compounds

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Classification of Pure Substances

1. made of one type of atom (some elements found as multiatom molecules in nature) 2. combine together to make compounds 1. made of one type of molecule, or an array of ions 2. units contain two or more different kinds of atoms

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Classification of Mixtures
Homogeneous mixtures are mixtures that have
uniform composition throughout
 regions within a sample have identical characteristics, though another sample with the same components may have different characteristics  atoms or molecules are mixed uniformly

Heterogeneous mixtures are mixtures that do

not have uniform composition throughout
 regions within a sample can have different characteristics  atoms or molecules are not mixed uniformly
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Classification of Mixtures
1. made of multiple substances, whose presence can be seen 2. portions of a sample have different composition and properties 1. made of multiple substances, but appears to be one substance 2. all portions of an individual sample have the same composition and properties
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Changes in Matter / Properties of Matter

Changes that alter the state or appearance of matter w/o
altering composition are called physical changes Physical properties are directly observable characteristics of matter that can be changed w/o changing its composition Changes that alter the composition of the matter are called chemical changes  the atoms rearrange into new molecules, but all of the original atoms are still present Chemical properties are characteristics that determine how the composition of matter changes as a result of contact with other matter or energy  characteristics that describe the behavior of matter
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Physical Changes in Matter

The boiling of water is a physical change
The water molecules are separated from each other, but their structure and composition do not change.
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Common Physical Changes Processes that cause

Dissolving of sugar Subliming of dry ice
CO2(g)

changes in the matter C12H22O11(s) that do not change its composition State changes Dry Ice
boiling / condensing melting / freezing subliming

Dissolving
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CO2(s) C12H22O11(aq)

Chemical Changes in Matter

The rusting of iron is a chemical change.
The iron atoms combine with oxygen atoms the air to make a new substance, rust, with a different composition.

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Common Chemical Changes Processes that cause

changes in the matter that change its composition Rusting Burning Dyes fading or changing color
C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g)
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3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l)

Energy

Energy Changes in Matter

Changes in matter, both physical and chemical, result
in the matter either gaining or releasing energy Energy is the capacity to do work Work is the action of a force applied across a distance
 a force is a push or a pull on an object  electrostatic force is the push or pull on objects that have an electrical charge

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Energy of Matter All matter possesses energy

Classified as either kinetic or potential Can be converted from one form to another

When matter undergoes a chemical or

physical change, the amount of energy in the matter changes as well

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Energy of Matter Kinetic Kinetic energy is energy of motion

motion of the atoms, molecules, and subatomic particles thermal (heat) energy is a form of kinetic energy because it is caused by molecular motion

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Energy of Matter Potential Potential energy is energy that is stored

in the matter
due to the composition of the matter and its position relative to other things chemical potential energy arises from electrostatic attractive forces between atoms, molecules, and subatomic particles

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Conversion of Energy You can interconvert kinetic energy and

potential energy Whatever process you do that converts energy from one type or form to another, the total amount of energy remains the same
Law of Conservation of Energy

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Spontaneous Processes
Materials that possess high
potential energy are less stable Processes in nature tend to occur on their own when the result is material with lower total potential energy
 Increases in total potential energy can occur, but generally will not happen w/o input of energy from an outside source

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Changes in Energy If a process results in the system having lower

potential energy, the lost potential energy was converted into kinetic energy, which is released to the environment During the conversion of form, energy that is released can be harnessed to do work

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Potential to Kinetic Energy

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Standard Units of Measure

The Standard Units Scientists have agreed on a set of international

standard units for comparing all our measurements called the SI units
Systme International = International System

46

Length
Two-dimensional measure of the distance an object covers

SI unit for length = the meter

 The meter is the length light travels in a vacuum during a time interval of 1299 792 458 of a second.  About 3.37 inches longer than a yard  1 m = 100 cm  1 cm = 0.01 m  1 cm = 10 mm  1 inch = 2.54 cm (exactly)

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Mass
Measures the amt. of matter present in an object
 weight measures the gravitational pull on an object, which depends on its mass

SI unit for mass = kilogram (kg)

 about 2 lbs. 3 oz.

Commonly measure mass in grams (g) or

milligrams (mg)
 1 kg = 2.2046 pounds, 1 lb. = 453.59 g  1 kg = 1000 g = 103 g  1 g = 1000 mg = 103 mg  1 g = 0.001 kg = 103 kg  1 mg = 0.001 g = 103 g
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Time Measure of the duration of an event SI units for time = the second (s) 1 s is defined as the duration of
9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom, at or approaching absolute zero

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Temperature
Measure of the average amount of kinetic energy
caused by motion of particles
 higher temperature = larger average kinetic energy

Heat flows from matter that has high thermal

energy into matter that has low thermal energy until they have equal energy and reach the same temperature
 heat flows from hot object (high energy) to cold (low energy)  heat is exchanged through molecular collisions between the two materials

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Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit scale, F
 used in the U.S.

Celsius scale, C
 used in all other countries

Kelvin scale, K
 absolute scale
 no negative numbers

 directly proportional to average amount of kinetic energy  0 K = absolute zero

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Fahrenheit vs. Celsius A Celsius degree is 1.8 times larger than a

Fahrenheit degree 0 on the Fahrenheit scale 0 on the Celsius scale

or F = (1.8)C+32

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Kelvin vs. Celsius

the divisions on the Kelvin scale are kelvins the divisions on the Celsius scale are degrees the size of a kelvin = size of a degree The 0 standard on the Kelvin scale is a much lower temperature than on the Celsius scale

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Example 1.2: Convert 40.00 C into K and F

Find the equation that relates the given quantity to the quantity you want to find Because the equation is solved for the quantity you want to find, substitute and compute Find the equation that relates the given quantity to the quantity you want to find Solve the equation for the quantity you want to find Substitute and compute
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Given: Find: Equation:

40.00 C K K = C + 273.15 K = C + 273.15 K = 40.00 + 273.15 K = 313.15 K

Given: Find: Equation:

40.00 C F

Practice Convert 0.0F into Kelvin

Sort information Strategize Given: Find: Concept Plan: Equations: Solution: 0.0 F Kelvin F C K

Follow the concept plan to solve the problem Sig. figs. and round Check

Round: Check:

255.37 K = 255 K
Because kelvin temperatures are always positive and generally between 250 and 300, the answer makes sense

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Related Units in the SI System All related units in the SI system are based on
the standard unit modified by some power of 10
std. unit m related unit km = m x 103

The power of 10 is indicated by a prefix multiplier The prefix multipliers are always the same,
regardless of the standard unit Report measurements with a unit that is close to the size of the quantity being measured
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Common Prefix Multipliers in the SI System

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Volume
Volume is a derived unit It is the measure of the amount of space occupied SI unit = cubic meter (m3) Solid volume measured in cubic centimeters (cm3) Liquid or gas volume measured in
milliliters (mL)
 1 L is slightly larger than 1 quart  1 L = 1 dm3 = 1000 mL = 103 mL  1 mL = 0.001 L = 103 L  1 mL = 1 cm3  1 m3 = 106 cm3  1 cm3 = 106 m3 = 0.000 001 m3
 The cube of any unit length

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Common Units and Their Equivalents

Length 1 kilometer (km) 1 meter (m) 1 meter (m) 1 foot (ft) 1 inch (in.) = = = = = 0.6214 mile (mi) 39.37 inches (in.) 1.094 yards (yd) 30.48 centimeters (cm) 2.54 centimeters (cm)
exactly

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Common Units and Their Equivalents

Mass 1 kilogram (km) = 2.205 pounds (lb) 453.59 grams (g) = 1 pound (lb) 28.35 grams (g) = 1 ounce (oz) Volume 1 liter (L) = 1000 milliliters (mL) 1 liter (L) = 1000 cubic centimeters (cm3) 1 liter (L) = 1.057 quarts (qt) 3.785 liters (L) = 1 U.S. gallon (gal)
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Practice which of the following units would be best used for measuring the diameter of a quarter?
a) b) c) d) e) kilometer meter centimeter micrometer megameters
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Intensive and Extensive Properties Extensive properties depend on the quantity

of matter present
extensive properties cannot be used to identify the type of matter you are working with
given a large glass container holding 100 g of a clear, colorless liquid and a small glass container holding 25 g of a clear, colorless liquid, are both liquids the same stuff? Mass is an extensive property.

Intensive properties are independent of the

quantity of matter present
intensive properties are often used to identify the type of matter you are working with
samples with identical intensive properties are usually the same material
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Mass & Volume Two main physical properties of matter are mass
and volume
Both are extensive properties

mass and volume are individual properties, but

for a given type of matter they are related!
Mass vs. Volume of Brass
160 140 120

Mass, g

100 80 60 40 20 0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0

y = 8.38x

14.0

16.0

18.0

Volume,
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cm3

Density Density is the ratio of mass to volume

Density is an intensive property The density of a substance is inherent to that substance

Volume of a solid can be determined by water

displacement Archimedes principle Density : solids > liquids >>> gases
except ice is less dense than liquid water!

Solid density = g/cm3

1 cm3 = 1 mL

Liquids = g/mL Gases = g/L

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Density

For equal volume, denser

objects have larger mass For equal mass, denser objects have smaller volume Heating an object generally causes it to expand, therefore, density changes with temperature

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Example 1.3: Decide if a ring with a mass of 3.15 g that displaces 0.233 cm3 of water is platinum
Write down the given quantities and the quantity you want to find Find the equation that relates the given quantity to the quantity you want to find Solve the equation for the quantity you want to find, check the units are correct, then substitute and compute Compare to accepted value of the intensive property Density of platinum = 21.4 g/cm3, therefore the ring is not platinum
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Given: Find: Equation:

mass = 3.15 g volume = 0.233 cm3 density, g/cm3

Calculating Density What is the density of a brass sample if 100.0 g

added to a cylinder of water causes the water level to rise from 25.0 mL to 36.9 mL?

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Practice What is the density of the brass sample?

Sort information Strategize Given: Find: Concept Plan: mass = 100 g vol displ: 25.0 p 36.9 mL d, g/cm3 m, V d

Equation: Solve the Solution: equation for V = 36.925.0 the unknown = 11.9 mL variable = 11.9 cm3 Sig. figs. and Round: 8.4033 g/cm3 = 8.40 g/cm3 round Check Check: units and number make sense
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Measurement and Significant Figures

What Is a Measurement? A quantitative observation Compared to an agreed standard

The markings on the graduated cylinder are the agreed upon std.

Measurement has a number and

a unit

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A Measurement The unit tells you the standard being used The number tells you
1. what multiple of the standard the object measures 2. the uncertainty in the measurement

Scientific measurements are reported so that

every digit written is certain, except the last one, which is estimated

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Estimating the Last Digit For instruments marked with a scale, you get
the last digit, if possible, by estimating between the marks Mentally divide the space into ten equal spaces, then estimate how many spaces over the indicator the mark is

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Significant Figures
The non-place-holding digits in a
measurement are called significant figures Significant figures tell us the range of values to expect for repeated measurements
 the more significant figures there are in a measurement, the smaller the range of values is  zeros at the end of a decimal are significant  some zeros in a written number are only there to help you locate the decimal point, not significant
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12.3 cm has 3 sig. figs. and its range is 12.2 to 12.4 cm 12.30 cm has 4 sig. figs. and its range is 12.29 to 12.31 cm

Counting Significant Figures 1. All non-zero digits are significant

 1.5 has 2 sig. figs.

2. Interior zeros are significant

 1.05 has 3 sig. figs.

3. Leading zeros are NOT significant

 0.001050 has 4 sig. figs.  1.050 x 103

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Counting Significant Figures

4. Trailing zeros may or may not be significant
a) Trailing zeros after a decimal point are significant  1.050 has 4 sig. figs. b) Trailing zeros before a decimal point are significant if the decimal point is written  150.0 has 4 sig. figs. c) Zeros at the end of a number without a written decimal point are ambiguous and should be avoided by using scientific notation  if 150 has 2 sig. figs. then 1.5 x 102  but 150. has 3 sig. figs. then 1.50 x 102
76

Significant Figures and Exact Numbers A number whose value is known with complete
certainty is exact
counting individual objects definitions
1 cm is exactly equal to 0.01 m

from integer values in equations

 in the equation for the radius of a circle, the 2 is exact

Exact numbers have an unlimited number of

significant figures
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Example 1.5: Determining the Number of Significant Figures in a Number

How many significant figures are in each of the following? 0.04450 m 5.0003 km 5.0003 km 10 dm = 1 m 1.000 105 s 0.00002 mm 10,000 m 10,000. m 4 sig. figs.; the digits 4 and 5, and the trailing 0 5 sig. figs.; the digits 5 and 3, and the interior 0s infinite number of sig. figs., exact numbers 4 sig. figs.; the digit 1, and the trailing 0s 1 sig. figs.; the digit 2, not the leading 0s Ambiguous, generally assume 1 sig. fig. Unambiguous, 5 sig. figs.; the digit 1 and 4 zeros

78

Practice Determine the number of significant figures, the expected range of precision, and indicate the last significant figure
0.00120

120.

12.00

1.20 x 103
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Practice determine the number of significant figures, the expected range of precision, and indicate the last significant figure
0.00120 3 sig. figs. 0.00119 to 0.00121

120.

3 sig. figs. 119 to 121

12.00

4 sig. figs. 11.99 to 12.01

1.20 x 103

3 sig. figs. 1190 to 1210

80

Multiplication and Division with Significant Figures

multiplying or dividing measurements with
significant figures, gives a result with the same number of significant figures as the measurement with the lowest number of significant figures 5.02 89.665
5 sig. figs.

0.10 = 45.0118 = 45
2 sig. figs. 2 sig. figs.

3 sig. figs.

5.892
4 sig. figs.

6.10 = 0.96590 = 0.966

3 sig. figs.
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3 sig. figs.

Addition and Subtraction with Significant Figures

When adding or subtracting
measurements with significant figures, the result has the same number of decimal places as the measurement 5.9 with the lowest number of  2 . 2 2 1 ! 5 .7 decimal places 5.6 7 9
2 0 2 5 . . . . 3 0 9 4 4 5 7 ! 5.41 9 7 5 12 5

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Rounding
To avoid accumulating extra error from rounding, round only at the end of your calculation, keeping track of the last sig. fig. for intermediate calculations When rounding to the correct number of significant figures, if the number after the place of the last significant figure is a) 0 to 4, round down  drop all digits after the last sig. fig. and leave the last sig. fig. alone  add insignificant zeros to keep the value if necessary b) 5 to 9, round up  drop all digits after the last sig. fig. and increase the last sig. fig. by one  add insignificant zeros to keep the value if necessary
83

Rounding
Round to 2 significant figures 2.34 rounds to 2.3
because the 3 is where the last sig. fig. will be and the number after it is 4 or less

2.37 rounds to 2.4

because the 3 is where the last sig. fig. will be and the number after it is 5 or greater

2.349865 rounds to 2.3

because the 3 is where the last sig. fig. will be and the number after it is 4 or less
84

Rounding
Round to 2 significant figures 0.0234 rounds to 0.023 or 2.3 102
because the 3 is where the last sig. fig. will be and the number after it is 4 or less

0.0237 rounds to 0.024 or 2.4 102

because the 3 is where the last sig. fig. will be and the number after it is 5 or greater

0.02349865 rounds to 0.023 or 2.3 102

because the 3 is where the last sig. fig. will be and the number after it is 4 or less
85

Rounding
Round to 2 significant figures 234 rounds to 230 or 2.3 102
because the 3 is where the last sig. fig. will be and the number after it is 4 or less

237 rounds to 240 or 2.4 102

because the 3 is where the last sig. fig. will be and the number after it is 5 or greater

234.9865 rounds to 230 or 2.3 102

because the 3 is where the last sig. fig. will be and the number after it is 4 or less
86

Both Multiplication/Division and Addition/ Subtraction with Significant Figures

When doing different kinds of operations with
measurements with significant figures, do whatever is in parentheses first, evaluate the significant figures in the intermediate answer, then do the remaining steps
3.489 (5.67 2.3) = 2 dp 1 dp (2 sig. figs.) 3.489 4 sf 3.37 = 1 dp & 2 sf 12 2 sf

87

Example 1.6: Perform the Following Calculations to the Correct Number of Significant Figures

88

Example 1.6 Perform the Following Calculations to the Correct Number of Significant Figures

105.1 has 1 DP, this controls the # DP in the answer.

Gives 2 DP = 0.3455 0.34 (2 sig. figs.) Gives 2 sig. figs.; 8.162 8.1 (1 DP
89

1 DP)

Uncertainty in Measured Numbers PRECISION and ACCURACY

Uncertainty comes from limitations of the instruments
used, the experimental design, the experimenter, and natures random behavior To understand how reliable a measurement is, we need to understand the limitations of the measurement Accuracy is an indication of how close a measurement comes to the actual value of the quantity Precision is an indication of how close repeated measurements are to each other
 how reproducible a measurement is
90

Precision Imprecision in measurements is caused by

random errors
errors that result from random fluctuations no specific cause, therefore cannot be corrected

Every measurement has some random error

with enough measurements these errors should average out

The precision of a set of measurements is found

by evaluating how far they are from each other

91

 Inaccuracy in measurement can be caused by

systematic errors
errors caused by limitations in the instruments or techniques or experimental design can be reduced by using more accurate instruments, or better technique or experimental design

Accuracy

We determine the accuracy of a measurement

by evaluating how far it is from the actual value Systematic errors do not average out with repeated measurements because they consistently cause the measurement to be either too high or too low
92

Accuracy vs. Precision

Suppose three students are asked to
determine the mass of an object whose known mass is 10.00 g The results they report are as follows

Looking at the graph of the results shows that Student A is neither accurate nor precise, Student B is inaccurate, but is precise, and Student C is both accurate and precise.
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Solving Chemical Problems

Equations & Dimensional Analysis

Units Write every number with its associated unit

Units must be included on all answers The answer is WRONG without it

Always include units in your calculations

you can do the same kind of operations on units as you can on numbers
cm cm = cm2 cm + cm = cm cm cm = 1

using units as a guide to problem solving is called dimensional analysis

95

Problem Solving and Dimensional Analysis

Many problems in chemistry involve using
relationships to convert one unit of measurement to another Conversion factors are relationships between two units
 may be exact or measured

Conversion factors can be generated from

equivalence statements
 1 inch = 2.54 cm gives or

96

Problem Solving & Dimensional Analysis

Conversion factors are arranged to cancel the starting unit
 starting units will be on the bottom of the conversion factor Conversion factors can be strung together  you dont need to be able to convert directly from the starting point to the end point, as long as you can find other relationships that relate to both

97

Conceptual Plan A conceptual plan is a visual outline that

shows the strategic route required to solve a problem For unit conversion, the conceptual plan focuses on units and how to convert one unit to another For problems that require equations, the conceptual plan focuses on solving the equation to find an unknown value
98

Conceptual Plans and Conversion Factors Convert inches into centimeters

1. Find relationship equivalence: 1 in. = 2.54 cm 2. Write a conceptual plan
in. cm

3. Change equivalence into conversion factors with starting units on the bottom

99

Systematic Approach to Problem Solving

Sort the information from the problem

ID the given quantity and its units, ID the quantity and units you want to find, ID any relationships implied in the problem

Design a strategy to solve the problem

devise a conceptual plan sometimes may want to work backward each step involves a conversion factor or equation
100

Systematic Approach to Problem Solving

Apply the steps in the conceptual plan to solve the
problem check that all units, other than those of the desired answer, cancel properly multiply terms across the top and divide by each bottom term

Check the answer

double-check the set-up to ensure the unit at the end is the one you wished to find check to see that the size of the number is reasonable because centimeters are smaller than inches, converting inches to centimeters should result in a larger number
101

Example 1.7: Convert 1.76 yd to centimeters

Sort the
information Strategize Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: 1.76 yd length, cm yd m cm

1 m = 1.094 yd 1 m = 100 cm

Follow the
conceptual plan to solve the problem Sig. figs. and round Check

1.76
Round: Check:
102

160.8775 cm = 161 cm
units are correct; number makes sense: cm << yd

Practice Convert 30.0 mL to quarts

Sort
information Strategize Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: 30.0 mL volume, qts mL L qt

1 L = 1.057 qt 0.001 L = 1 mL

Follow the
conceptual plan to solve the problem Sig. figs. and round Check

Round:

0.03171 qt = 0.0317 qt

Check: units are correct; and number makes sense: mL << qt

103

Conceptual Plans for Units Raised to Powers

Convert cubic inches into cubic centimeters
1. Find relationship equivalence: 1 in. = 2.54 cm 2. Write concept plan
in.3 cm3

3. Change equivalence into conversion factors with given unit on the bottom

104

Example 1.9: Convert 5.70 L to cubic inches

Sort
information Strategize Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: 5.70 L (3 sig. figs.) volume, in.3 L mL cm3 in3

103 L=1 mL , 1 mL = 1 cm3 1 in. = 2.54 cm

Follow the
conceptual plan to solve the problem Sig. figs. and round Check

Round: Check:
105

conv. factors do not change sig. figs. 347.835 in.3 = 348 in.3

units are correct; number makes sense: in.3 << L

Practice 1.9 Convert 2.11 yd3 to cubic centimeters

Sort
information Strategize Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: 2.11 yd3 (3 sig. figs.) volume, cm3 yd3 in3 1 yd = 36 in. 1 in. = 2.54 cm cm3

Follow the
conceptual plan to solve the problem Sig. figs. and round

Solution:

Round:

1613210.75 cm3 = 1.61 x 106 cm3

Check

Check: units and number make sense

106

Density as a Conversion Factor

Density can be used as a conversion factor between mass and volume!!
 density of H2O = 1.0 g/mL @ 1.0 g H2O = 1 mL H2O

How much does 4.0 cm3 of lead weigh?

 density of Pb = 11.3 g/cm3 @ 11.3 g Pb = 1 cm3 Pb

107

Example 1.10: What is the mass in kg of 173,231 L of jet fuel whose density is 0.768 g/mL? Given: Sort 173,231 L (6 sig. figs.)
information

Strategize

Find: Conceptual Plan:

density = 0.768 g/mL (3 sig. figs.) mass, kg L mL g kg

Follow the
conceptual plan to solve the problem

1 mL = 103 L, 1 mL = 0.768 g Relationships: 1 kg = 1000 g Solution:

Sig. figs. and

round

Round: Check:
108

1.33041 x 105 = 1.33 x 105 kg

units and number make sense

Check

Practice - How much does 3.0 x 102 mL of ether weigh?

Sort information Strategize Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: 3.0 x 102 mL (2 sig. figs.) density = 0.71 g/mL (2 sig. figs.) mass, g mL g

1 mL = 0.71 g

Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem Sig. figs. and round Check

Round: Check:
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2.1 x 102 g
units are correct; number makes sense: if density < 1, mass < volume

Practice What volume does 100.0 g of marble occupy?

Sort information Strategize Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solution: m = 100.0 g (4 sig. figs.) density = 4.0 g/cm3 (2 sig. figs.) volume, cm3 g cm3

1 cm3 = 4.0 g

Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem Sig. figs. and round Check

Round:

25 cm3 (2 sig. figs.)

units are correct; number makes Check: sense: if density > 1, mass > volume
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Order of Magnitude Estimations Using scientific notation Focus on the exponent xon 10x If the decimal part of the number is less than 5,
just drop it If the decimal part of the number is greater than 5, increase the exponent on 10 by 1 Multiply by adding exponents, divide by subtracting exponents

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Estimate the Answer Suppose you count 1.2 x 105 atoms per second
for a year. How many would you count?
1 s = 1.2 x 105 atoms } 105 atoms 1 minute = 6 x 101 s } 102 s 1 hour = 6 x 101 min } 102 min 1 day = 24 hr } 101 hr 1 yr = 365 days } 102 days

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Problem Solving with Equations When solving a problem involving use of an

equation, the concept plan involves being given all the variables except the one you want to find Solve the equation for the variable you wish to find, then substitute and compute

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Example 1.12: Find the density of a metal cylinder with mass 8.3 g, length 1.94 cm, and radius 0.55 cm
Sort information Strategize Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem Sig. figs. and round Check Solution: V= m = 8.3 g l = 1.94 cm, r = 0.55 cm density, g/cm3 l, r V m, V d

V = r2 l d = m/V (0.55 cm)2 (1.94 cm) V = 1.8436 cm3

Check:

units and number make sense

Practice What is the mass in kilograms of a cube of lead that measures 0.12 m on each side?
Sort information Strategize

Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships:

l = 0.12 m, d = 11.3 g/cm3 mass, kg l m3 V cm3 g kg

V = l3, 11.3 g = 1 cm3, 1 cm = 10-2 m, 1 kg = 103 g

Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem Sig. figs. and round Check

Solution:

V = (0.12 m)3 V = 1.728 x 103 m3

Check:

units and number make sense