Instrumentation engineering

 Instrumentation engineering is the engineering specialization focused on the principle and operation of measuring instruments which are used in design and configuration of automated systems in electrical, pneumatic domains etc. They typically work for industries with automated processes, such as chemical or manufacturing plants, with the goal of productivity, improving system productivity, reliability, safety, optimization, and stability.

Applications of Instrumentation to Measurement  Instrumentation is used to measure many parameters (physical values). These parameters include:
         Pressure, Pressure, either differential or static Flow Temperature Levels of liquids etc. Density Viscosity Other mechanical properties of materials Frequency Current

Applications of Instrumentation in Measurement

        

Voltage Inductance Capacitance Resistivity Chemical composition Chemical properties Properties of light Vibration Weight

Example: Control Panel of a Steam Turbine

Instrumentation Engineering
 Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as pressure, flow and temperature. temperature. The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of physics that often extends beyond electromagnetic theory. For theory. example, thermocouples use the PeltierPeltierSeebeck effect to measure the temperature difference between two points.

Instrumentation Engineering
 Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering

Instrumentation engineering
 An instrument is a device that measures and/or regulates process variables such as flow, temperature, level, or pressure. Instruments include many varied contrivances which can be as simple as valves and transmitters, and as complex as transmitters, analyzers. analyzers. Instruments often comprise control systems of varied processes such as refineries, factories, and vehicles.

Instrumentation engineering
 The control of processes is one of the main branches of applied instrumentation.  The control of the parameters in a process or in a particular system, are made possible by using devices such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs, but their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system.

Instrumentation engineering
 Output instrumentation includes devices such as solenoids, valves, regulators, solenoids, valves, regulators, circuit breakers, and breakers, relays. relays. These devices control a desired output variable, and provide either remote or automated control capabilities. These are often referred to as final control elements when controlled remotely or system. by a control system.  Control Instrumentation plays a significant role in both gathering information from the field and changing the field parameters, and as such are a loops. key part of control loops.

Instrumentation engineering
 Transmitters are devices which produce an output signal, often in the form of a 420 mA electrical 4 current signal, although many other options using voltage, frequency, pressure, voltage, frequency, pressure, or ethernet are possible. This signal can be used for informational purposes, or it can be sent to a PLC, DCS, SCADA PLC, DCS, system, or other type of computerized controller, where it can be interpreted into readable values and used to control other devices and processes in the system.

Instrumentation engineering
 A programmable logic controller (PLC) or PLC) programmable controller is a digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines, lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. Unlike generalgeneralpurpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile memory. A batterynonmemory. PLC is an example of a real time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result.

Instrumentation engineering
 Programming  PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer, then downloaded by a direct-connection directcable or over a network to the PLC. The program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backedbattery-backed-up RAM or some other nonnonvolatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC memory. can be programmed to replace thousands of relays. relays.

Instrumentation engineering
 IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming 61131languages for programmable control systems: FBD (Function block diagram), LD (Ladder (Function diagram), (Ladder diagram), diagram), ST (Structured text, similar to the Pascal (Structured text, programming language), IL (Instruction list, similar language), (Instruction list, language) (Sequential to assembly language) and SFC (Sequential function chart). These techniques emphasize chart). logical organization of operations.
 While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction sets mean that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different makers. Even within the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models may not be directly compatible.

Digital and analog signals

 Digital or discrete signals behave as binary switches, yielding simply an On or Off signal (1 or 0, True or False, respectively). Push buttons, limit switches, and photoelectric sensors are examples of devices providing a discrete signal. Discrete current, signals are sent using either voltage or current, where a specific range is designated as On and another as Off. For example, a PLC might use 24 Off. V DC I/O, with values above 22 V DC representing On, On, values below 2VDC representing Off, and Off, intermediate values undefined. Initially, PLCs had only discrete I/O.

Digital and analog signals

 Analog signals are like volume controls, with a range of values between zero and full-scale. These are typically fullinterpreted as integer values (counts) by the PLC, with various ranges of accuracy depending on the device and the number of bits available to store the data. As PLCs typically use 16-bit signed binary processors, the integer 16values are limited between -32,768 and +32,767. Pressure, temperature, flow, and weight are often represented by analog signals. Analog signals can use voltage or current with a magnitude proportional to the value of the process signal. For example, an analog 0 - 10 V input or 4-20 mA would be converted into an integer value of 0 - 32767.

Example: PLC Application

 As an example, say a facility needs to store water in a tank. The water is drawn from the tank by another system, as needed, and our example system must manage the water level in the tank. - Using only digital signals, the PLC has two digital inputs from float switches (Low Level and High Level). When the water level is above the switch it closes a contact and passes a signal to an input. The PLC uses a digital output to open and close the inlet valve into the tank.

Example: PLC Application - When the water level drops enough so that the Low Level float switch is off (down), the PLC will open the valve to let more water in. Once the water level rises enough so that the High Level switch is on (up), the PLC will shut the inlet to stop the water from overflowing. This rung is an example of sealseal-in (latching) logic. The output is sealed in until some condition breaks the circuit.

Example: PLC Application  Ladder Diagram

Low Level High Level Fill Valve ----------------------[/]------------------------[/]--------------------(OUT)-----------------------------[/]------------------------[/]--------------------(OUT)--------

Fill Valve -----------------------[ ]---------------------------------[ ]-----------

Considerations:
 An analog system might use a water pressure sensor or a load cell, and an adjustable (throttling) dripping out of the cell, tank, the valve adjusts to slowly drip water back into the tank.  In this system, to avoid 'flutter' adjustments that can wear out the valve, many PLCs incorporate "hysteresis" which "hysteresis" essentially creates a "deadband" of activity. A technician "deadband" adjusts this deadband so the valve moves only for a significant change in rate. This will in turn minimize the motion of the valve, and reduce its wear.  A real system might combine both approaches, using float switches and simple valves to prevent spills, and a rate sensor and rate valve to optimize refill rates and prevent water hammer. Backup and maintenance methods can make hammer. a real system very complicated.

Instrumentation engineering
 A distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control system usually of a manufacturing system, process or any system, system, kind of dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not central in location (like the brain) but are distributed brain) throughout the system with each component sub-system subcontrolled by one or more controllers. The entire system of controllers is connected by networks for communication and monitoring.
 DCS is a very broad term used in a variety of industries, to monitor and control distributed equipment: Electrical power grids and electrical generation plants, Environmental control systems, Traffic signals, radio signals, signals, Water management systems, Oil refining plants, Chemical plants, plants, Pharmaceutical manufacturing, Sensor networks, Dry cargo and networks, bulk oil carrier ships

Example: DCS applied to Building Automation

Instrumentation Engineering
 SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition. acquisition. It generally refers to industrial control systems: computer systems that monitor and control industrial, infrastructure, or facilityfacility-based processes:

-Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production, power manufacturing, production,

generation, fabrication, generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, refining, repetitive, or discrete modes. - Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and treatment, gas pipelines, electrical power transmission and distribution, Wind farms, farms, civil defense siren systems, and large communication systems. -Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones, including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor HVAC, and control HVAC, access, and energy consumption.

SCADA schematic overview

What is Control Engineering?

engineering discipline that focuses on the mathematical modeling systems of a diverse nature, analyzing their dynamic behavior, and using control theory to make a controller that will cause the systems to behave in a desired manner. Control engineering is closely related to electrical engineering, as electronic circuits engineering, can often be easily described using control theory techniques.

What is meant by Control?

 Control the process in a system in which one or several input variables influence other output variables as a result of the laws pertaining to the system. Controlling is characterized by the open-loop sequence of openactions via the single transfer element or the control chain. (according to DIN 19226)

As shown in the Fig.1, the input variables xe ..acting on Fig.1, this system are linked in a self- contained box and selfissued as output variables xa.. and these variables xa.. now act on the energy flow or mass flow to be controlled. Fig 1.1 xe1 xe2 xa1 xe3 xa2

In general: xa = f ( xe )
The term control is often applied to the complete system in which controlling takes place, not only to the control operation itself.

What is meant by Control?

 The field of control within chemical engineering is often known as process control. control. It deals primarily with the control of variables in a chemical process in a plant. It employs many of the principles in control engineering, and is a well-established field wellin its own right.

Process Control (process control engineering):

 an engineering discipline that deals with architecture, mechanisms, and algorithms for controlling the output of a specific process.  uses analog sensors to monitor real-world realsignals and digital computers to do the analysis and controlling; makes extensive use of analog/digital and digital/analog conversion.

In practice, process control systems can be characterized as one or more of the following forms:

 Discrete Found in many manufacturing, motion and packaging applications, discrete process control systems use a device called a programmable logic controller (PLC) to read a set of digital and analog inputs, apply a set of logic statements, and generate a set of outputs. Robotic assembly, such as that found in automotive production, can also be characterized as discrete process control.

In practice, process control systems can be characterized as one or more of the following forms:

 Batch Some applications require that specific quantities of raw materials be combined in specific ways for particular duration to produce an intermediate or end result. One example is the production of adhesives and glues, which normally require the mixing of raw materials in a heated vessel for a period of time to form a quantity of end product.

In practice, process control systems can be characterized as one or more of the following forms:

 Continuous Often, a physical system is represented though variables that are smooth and uninterrupted in time. The control of the water temperature in a heating jacket, for example, is an example of continuous process control.  Hybrid - applications having elements of discrete, batch and continuous process control

What is a Control System?

 a device or set of devices that manage the behavior of other devices.  an interconnection of components (mechanical, electrical, optical, thermal or hydraulic) connected or related in such a manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system to maintain a desired output.

What is a Controller?
 a component of a system that makes it operate within desired limits.  a device that attempts to control the states or outputs of a dynamic system. Generally, it system. accomplishes this using feedback to correct disturbances to the system; known as closed-loop control. closedcontrol.

Example 1.1:
If the output of an air compressor is controlled by the quantity drawn in, then:  The opening and closing of the valve is the control operation  The valve, whose setting affects the quantity drawn in, is the control element  The opening provided by the valve is the controlled variable y.  The handwheel with which the valve is actuated is the control device. device.  The varying load on the compressed air system caused by the users that affects the control system is the disturbance z. This also applies to speed fluctuations or variations in the degree of efficiency caused by the compressor. On the account of the open action loop of the control system, it is not possible to compensate for such disturbance variables. variables.

Types of control loops:

 open-loop controller does not use feedback to opensystem. Opencontrol states or outputs of a dynamic system. Openloop control is used for systems that are sufficiently well characterized to predict what inputs are necessary to achieve the desired states or outputs. E.g. the velocity of a motor may be well characterized for the voltage fed into it, in which case feedback may not be necessary.  closed-loop controller uses feedback to control closedstates or outputs of a dynamic system. system.

Fig. 1.2 shows the block diagram representing an openopenloop control itself together with the system to be controlled. Fig. 1.2
Disturbance z1
Controlled System

Energy/Mass Flow

Controller Output y
Controller

Sequence of Actions (Action Loop)

Disturbance z2

Fig. 1.3 Closed-Loop Controller

Disturbance z1 Controlled Variable x Energy/ Mass Flow

Controlled System

Sequence of Actions
Controller Output (Error) y

Controller Controller

Command Variable w Disturbance z2

Automatic control  Process in which the controlled variable is continuously measured and compared with another variable, the command variable, the process being influenced according to the result of this comparison by modifying to match the command variable. variable.  The sequence of actions resulting from this takes loop. place in a closed loop, the control loop. The purpose of the closed loop control is to match the value of the controlled variable to the value specified by the command variable even if perfect equalization is not attained under the prevailing circumstances. (according circumstances.
to DIN 19226) 19226)

Terms and Definitions:

 Controlled System the part of the total system to be influenced.  Actuator element that acts on the mass flow or energy flow to be controlled and is located at the input to the controlled system.  Actuating path path along which the actions determining a control operation are transmitted.  Controller part of the actuating path causing the controlled system to be influenced by the actuator; the control or automatic control proper whose elements link the input signals in accordance with the respective laws.  Disturbance point - point at which a factor acts that is not influenced by the system and which disturbs the condition to be maintained.

Variables and their ranges in the actuating path:

 Controller output y output from the controller and at the same time input variable to the control system.  Controller output range yh range within which the output maybe adjusted.  Desired value xA value to be acted upon by the control  Control range xAh range within which the desired value may be when the control is operated properly.

Variables and their ranges in the actuating path:

 Command variable w value introduced from the outside to the control chain or to the control loop whose output value is to follow in a predetermined manner (ie. setpoint device in close loop control, (ie. input signal in open loop control.)  wh range of command variable  Disturbance variable z variable acting from the outside that influences the intended action of the control.  zh range within which the disturbance variable may be allowed without adversely affecting the operability of the control.

Example 2: House heating/ Air-conditioning system Air-

In this example:
 The thermostat acts as the controller which directs the activities of the heater.  heater or the air-conditioner is the processor that airwarms or cools the air inside the house.  the air coming into the heater or air-conditioner is the airinput. input.  the air going out of the heater or air conditioner is its output. output.  the air temperature readings inside the house are the feedbacks. feedbacks.  and finally, the house is the environment in which the heating/airheating/air-conditioning system operates

What is feedback?
 In cybernetics and control theory, feedback is a process whereby some proportion or in general, function, of the output signal of a system is passed (fed back) to the input. Often this is done intentionally, in order to control the dynamic behavior of the system. Feedback may be:  negative, which tends to reduce output, or negative,  positive, which tends to increase output. positive,

Example 3
Process: cooling a room Desired outcome: reach/ maintain a defined temperature constant over time, say 20 o C Controlled variable: temperature variable: Input variable: temperature, since it is measured by a thermometer and is used to decide whether to cool or not Setpoint: Setpoint: 20 o C Manipulated variable: state of the cooler (the setting of the valve allowing chilled water to flow through it)

Signals
 Signals represent information, the representation may refer to the value or the change in values of a physical dimension and may refer to transmission, processing or storage of information.  In abstract considerations, signal refers to values or change in value of mathematical quantities.

Types of Signals
 Analog information is assigned continuously point by point to a range of values.  Digital the range to be considered is divided into a finite number of separate value ranges, and one specific item of information is assigned to each range of values.  The digital group includes the binary signal, signal, also known as an on-off signal, representing on- signal, two items of information.

Types of Signals
 Digital signals are used more frequently in control engineering and the digital signals are mainly in the form of binary signals.  These binary signals are of considerable significance for information processing because they can easily be produced by equipment (e.g. switches) and can also be processed simply.  In practice, it is essential to clearly define the relationship between range of values and signal in the case of binary signals

Analog/Digital Analog/Digital Signals illustrated

 If a continuously changeable pressure from 0 to 600kPa is considered, each intermediate value of the range maybe assigned a specific signal.  If the pressure is indicated on a Bourdon pressure gauge, each intermediate value corresponds to a specific position of the pointer. The position of the pointer represents an analog signal.

Analog/Digital Analog/Digital Signals illustrated

 If the dial is now divided into separate value ranges, say in pressure steps of 50 kPa and if each range is assigned a specific item of information:
50 . . . 100 kPa, kPa, 100 . . . 150 kPa, kPa, 150 . . . 200kPa, value =1 value = 1.5 value =2,

Then, we are dealing with digital signals!

Signal Flow Diagram

 The Symbolic representation of the effective relationships between the signals in a system.
 Block and line of action Xe1  Linkage points Xe2  Branch points
X X X X

xa1

Representation of a closed loop in the signal flow diagram

Xe1 Xe2 = y

Xd = W - X W

Breakdown of the Control Chain

 In the preceding sections, the controller has been represented as a self-contained block selfwhich can be broken down even further. A control can always be broken down by the same method to show the arrangement of the individual components; at the same time showing the signal flow.  The control chain is thus characterized by a signal flow from signal input via signal processing to signal output/execution of instruction.

Breakdown of the control chain:

Actuating Device
Signal output/ execution of instruction

Processing Element

Signal Processing

Input Element

Signal input

Hardware breakdown

Signal Flow

Hardware terms:
 Actuating mechanism element that has direct effect on a controlled system, moves the final control element when mechanically actuated.  Actuating device consists of actuating mechanism and final control element.  Signal transducer device transform an input signal as clearly as possible into an associated output signal, where necessary using auxiliary energy. Among others, this group of devices includes amplifiers and signal converters.  Signal amplifier device using auxiliary energy for power amplification.  Signal Converter devices in which input and output signals have different structure

Examples of Hardware Elements

 Signal elements: limit switch with cam and roller operation, proximity switches, light barriers, reflex sensors, push buttons, manual switches, etc.  Processing elements: Electronic logic elements, contactors, relays, valves released by pneumatic logic, etc.  Final control elements: Power contactors, pneumatic and hydraulic (directional control) valves, etc.  Drive elements: Electric motors, pneumatic/ hydraulic motors, cylinders, etc.

Types of controls vis a vis power requirement:

 Control without auxiliary power requirement to adjust the final control element is provided by the input element of the control.  Control with auxiliary energy power required to adjust the final control element is supplied entirely or in part through a source of auxiliary energy. It is possible to operate with different levels of energy within the control chain, thus it is necessary to distinguish the working energy the energy required to operate the actuating device, from the control energy that supplies the signal input and signal processing.

Based on these considerations, an extended control chain can be drawn up as follows:

Controlled System

Actuating Device

Execution of Instruction

Operative part
Signal Output

Transducer

Processing element

Controller

Processing element

Input Element

Signal element

Examples of hardware used for Electrical and Pneumatic Systems Electrical Systems Actuating Mechanism Electric Motor Solenoid Linear motor Power contactors Pneumatic Systems Pneumatic cylinder Air motor

Final Control Elements

Directional control valves

Processing Elements

Auxiliary Contactors Relays

Directional control valves Non-return valves Pressure control valves Flow Control valves

Input Elements

Switches Push buttons Limit switches Program generators Proximity signallers

Switches Push buttons Limit switches Program generators Proximity signallers

Ex. Control with the same form of energy for the operative and control part
II I Controlled System Actuating Mechanism Final control element 1.1 1.5 Signal processing

Signal input 1.2 1.3

Types of energy for operative and control part  By means of suitable devices (signal transformers/ transducers) it is possible to convert one type of energy into signals of another type of energy in control engineering, one can work within the controlled system with different types of energy.  In practice however, it is not always easy to select the right control system. Apart from the immediate requirements of the problem, the auxiliary requirements in particular (place of installation, environmental influences, etc.) determine the solution. These auxiliary often conflict with the simple solution to the problem that can make project engineering more difficult.

Types of energy for operative and control part  If a system uses different types of energy for the operative and control parts, one refers to a mixed technology which is being used to an increasing extent in control design.
Working Media: -Mechanical -Electrical -Hydraulics -Pneumatics Criteria for system selection: -Force -Displacement -Type of motion -Speed -Physical size -Life -Sensitivity -Working safety

Characteristics of working media:

 Electrical:  Energy storage difficult, transmission fast, costs low.  Creation of straight line motion complex and expensive, as it is necessary either to convert by mechanical means or short displacements possible with lifting magnets and only small forces possible with linear motors.  Creation of rotary motion at very high efficiency, large physical size, speed limited, speed torque regulation difficult and elaborate  Elements not overload-proof, not intrinsically overloadexplosionexplosion-proof.

Characteristics of working media:  Hydraulics

 Storage of energy only to a limited degree, limited and slow energy transmission, high energy cost.  Creation of straight line motion is very simple, working speed not too high (up to 0.5m/s max.), very small dimensions, large to very large forces can be achieved.  Creation of rotary motion is simple, however at not very high speed, speeds constant even at low range, high efficiency, high torque  Elements are overload-proof, line installation difficult overloadand expensive and must be insured that system is completely sealed.

Characteristics of working media:  Pneumatics  Energy storage presents no problem, limited and slow energy transmission, high energy costs  Creation of straight line motion simple and cheap, high working speeds (1-2m/s), stroke length limited (1up to 2m depending on the design, force obtainable is limited up 40000N max., small dimensions.  Creation of rotary motion simple and cheap, high operating costs due to poor efficiency, high speeds (up to 500,000m/min), torque obtainable not too high  Elements are over-load proof, intrinsically explosionoverexplosionproof, very simple regulation of speed, torque, force.

Types of energy for operative and control part

Control Media: Criteria for system selection:
- Signal speed - Switching times of elements - Working safety of elements - Life - Sensitivity to environmental influences - Space requirement - Ease of maintenance

- Mechanical - Electrical - Electronics - Low pressure pneumatics - Normal pressure pneumatics - Hydraulics

Characteristics of Control media:

Electrical
Signal speed Very high, approx speed of sound Practically unlimited Greater than 10 ms

Electronics
Very high, approx speed of sound Practically unlimited Less than 1 ms

Normal-pressure Low-pressure pneumatics pneumatics

Approx 40-70 m/s 100-200m/s normal, to some extent speed of light Limited by speed of signal Greater than 10 ms Insensitive to envi influences small Digital, analog Static, dynamic elements

Distance w/c can be covered Switching times of elements Reliability Space requirement

Limited by speed of signal Greater than 10 ms

Sensitive to envi Very sensitive to Insensitive to envi influences envi influences influences large Very small Digital, analog Electronic valves, transistors Very large digital Directional control valves

Main type of digital signal processing Components Contactors, relays

Differentiating characteristics of controls Controls can be classified according to:

 Control energy used  Mode of operation with respect to signal processing  Combined controls a certain combination of input signals is always associated with a combination of output signals. These signals operate without time behavior. behavior.  Sequential controls controls containing elements with time behavior (e.g. Timing elements, storage devices, etc.

Differentiating characteristics of controls  According to the type of operating sequence

CONTROL

Pilot Control

Memory Control

Program Control

Time-schedule control

Coordinated motion control

Sequence control

Differentiating characteristics of controls

 Pilot Control establishes always a unique relationship between the command variable and output variable.
Examples: 1. Copying on machine tools the movements of the tracer pin are uniquely related to the movement of the cutting tool 2. Brightness control the brightness of the lamp is at all times uniquely related to the position of the resistor or of the transformer.

Differentiating characteristics of controls  Memory control after removing or taking back the command variable, the value reached by the output variable is retained until an opposing signal is presented.  Example: Switch-on and switch off of an electric motor Switchby means of a pressure switch
Ro OFF b2 ON b1 R S T 3 380 V

c1 Mp

Example: Controlling the advance and return movement of a doubleacting cylinder by manual switch. Here, the condition obtained by the output variable is retained after the command variable has been removed, until the opposing signal is presented.

1.1

1.2

1.3

Differentiating characteristics of controls  Time-schedule control Time Command variables are supplied by a time-dependent timeprogram transmitter (program storage device) and a timetime-dependent operating sequence of the program.  Centrally stored program; usually compact construction  Time-constant program execution; execution Timeinsensitive to disturbing factors and independent/no check of operating sequence, hence no sequence reliability. Disturbances in the operating sequence have no effect on program execution.

Differentiating characteristics of controls  Coordinated motion control  The command variables are provided by a program transmitter, the output variables of w/c are dependent on the distance covered (displacement or position of a movable part of the controlled system.  Program is defined by the arrangement of limit switches/ signal elements, hence the layout is not clearly arranged and is not easy to service  Operating sequence reliability is provided by displacementdisplacement-dependent sequence, disturbances in the operating sequence can be registered, program execution maybe interrupted

Differentiating characteristics of controls

A program transmitter maybe: - camshaft, cam disk, program belt, punch card/tape, etc. Example: A piano displays the characteristics of a time-schedule control. The program is timecontained in a program transmitter, which in this case maybe a drum and is run through on a time-dependent basis (constant speed timeof program transmitter drive motor)

Example Coordinated motion control Movement of a double-acting pneumatic cylinder: The advance motion is tripped by operating START button 1.2, the return motion being effected by a limit switch1.3 after a certain length of travel, depending on the position of LS 1.3
1.3 1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3

Differentiating characteristics of controls  Sequence control The operating sequence program is stored in a program transmitter w/c runs through a step-bystep-bystep program in accordance w/ the condition reached at any one time by the controlled system. Is identified by having a program transmitter and an equipment w/c is capable of interrogating the conditions prevailing in the system, has the advantage of check the momentary machine status (operating sequence reliability and is possible to advance the program transmitter stepstepbyby-step (stepping motor).

Means of representing motion sequences and switching conditions:

 Movement sequences and switching conditions of working and control elements must be represented in a clear fashion. As we maybe confronted with a more difficult problem, the relationships can be identified quickly and with certainty only if a suitable form of representation can be selected.  Only neat representation allows large-scale largeprojects to be understood clearly.

Means of representing motion sequences and switching conditions:

    Writing down in chronological sequence Tabular form Vector diagram Graphical representation in graphical form, Diagram, commonly referred to as Function Diagram, consisting of: 1. Motion Diagram records conditions relating to working elements and components 2. Control Diagram provides information concerning the condition of individual control elements

Motion diagrams:
 Displacement-step diagram The operating sequence Displacementof a working element is represented in a manner such that the displacement is recorded in relation to the various steps or change in condition of any component. If a control has several working elements, each is represented in the same manner and each is drawn one beneath the other.
1 Forward (1) Cylinder A Rear (0) Steps Displacement 2 3 4 5=1

Recommendations for layout when drawing displacementdisplacement-step diagram:

 The steps should be drawn (when possible) linearly and horizontally.  If possible, the displacement should not be drawn to scale, but of equal size for all components.  If the condition of the system changes during motion, intermediate steps maybe introduced.  The steps may be numbered as required.  The designation of the condition may be optional, binary digits may be used, say 0 for rear end position and 1 for forward end position.  The designation of the unit must be written on the left side of the diagram.

Motion Diagram:  Displacement-time diagram The displacement Displacementof a component is drawn in relation to time; the time is drawn linearly and establishes the relationship (motion/displacement) between the individual components.
1 Cylinder A 0 1 Cylinder B 0 Displacement Time t

Recommendations for layout when drawing displacementdisplacement-step diagram:

 The rules for drawing the diagram are roughly the same as for the displacement-step diagram; the relationships to the displacementdisplacementdisplacement-step diagram are indicated by the broken lines (step lines), although the distance between them is not drawn to scale.  Whereas the displace-step diagram allows the relationships displaceto be seen more clearly, overlaps and varying speeds can be shown better in the displacement-time diagram displacement In case of rotating elements, the changes in condition with respect to time are no longer accounted for, i.e. in the displacementdisplacement-step diagram, a change in condition (e.g. Switching of an electric motor) does not extend over the whole step but is entered directly on the step line

Control Diagram
 In the control diagram, the switching condition of control element is shown in relation to the steps or the times, the switching time itself not being considered, for example the condition of a relay b1 being opened:
1 Open b1 Closed Steps 2 3 4 5 6=1

Condition

Note that relay b1 pulls up at step 2 and drops off again at step 5.

Function Diagram, Example:

1 A 1 0 1 B 0 1.1 2.1 2.2 2 3 4 5=1

The control diagram shows the conditions of the directional control valves 1.1 which controls cylinder A, 2.1 which controls cylinder B and limit switch 2.2 which is installed at the front end position of cylinder A.

Working out a control problem

Step 1 - Problem definition, determination of conditions  Right at the start, the problem and specifically the objectives must be clearly defined. Also, it is very important to list the auxiliary conditions with respect to: sequence: - functional sequence: as start conditions, setting up conditions, safety conditions - auxiliary conditions for operating influences: influences: environmental influences, place of installation, supply, personnel - reliability of performance

Working out a control problem

 Possible auxiliary conditions for the functional sequence:  Start and setting up conditions: - Automatic operation: AUT - Single cycle - Continuous cycling - Jogging operation - Manual operation: MAN  Setting up: each element can be operated in any sequence  Setting: by operating the set button, the system is brought into a defined position

Working out a control problem  Possible auxiliary conditions for the functional sequence:  Safety conditions:
EMERGENCY STOP: the position of the working elements assumed when this condition applies must be clearly defined EMERGENCY STOP unlocking: the system is again released for re-start and continuance of reoperation

Working out a control problem

Step 2 Determination of the sequence of operations Step 3 Selection of the type of control and control energy Step 4 Selection of the type of control and control energy Step 5 Draw the positional sketch Step 6 Draw the circuit diagram

What are the common types of control systems?

The common types of controllers, with many variations and/ or combinations of which are:  Logic controls  Pure logic controls were historically implemented by electricians with networks of relays, and designed with a notation logic. called ladder logic. Nowadays, most such systems are constructed with programmable logic controllers. controllers.

Logic Controllers
Logic controllers usually respond to switches or photoelectric cells, and cause the machinery to perform some operation. Logic systems are great for sequencing mechanical operations in places like elevators and factories, but notably poor at managing continuous process controls in such places as oil refineries and steel mills.

Logic Controllers
 Logic systems are quite easy to design, and can handle very complex operations. Logic systems may be designed with a system logic. similar to Boolean logic. (Logic gates that are primarily electronically-controlled but electronicallycan also be constructed from electromagnetic relays, electronic diodes, relays, diodes, fluidics, optical or even mechanical fluidics, elements, are commonly employed.

Linear or feedback controls

 Linear controls use negative feedback to keep some desired process within an acceptable range. For example, a thermostat is a simple negative feedback control; when the temperature goes below a threshold, control starts. Systems that include feedback are prone to hunting, hunting, which is oscillation of output resulting from improperly tuned inputs of first positive then negative feedback.

Linear or feedback controls

 In the furnace example, the valve may open and shut indefinitely in a cycle as the furnace heats, and then overruns the target temperature. This is bad because it stresses the system. In a furnace, the constantly turning valve will quickly wear out. More expensively, the fluctuating temperature causes expansion and contraction all through the furnace, causing unnecessary, very expensive mechanical wear. Most systems have similar problems.

Linear or feedback controls

 Often, if the response of the system is slowed down enough to prevent oscillation, the system doesn't respond fast enough to work in normal situations. To resolve the problems, the most common feedback loop scheme has mathematical extensions to cope with the future and the past. This type of loop is called a Proportional-IntegralProportional-Integralloop. Derivative Loop, or PID loop. Loop,

Linear or feedback controls

 If the error curve is graphed over time, the past is considered by adding a number proportional to the area under the curve over a certain amount of time in the past (this is the "integration" part). The future is considered by the adding a number proportional to the slope of a line tangent to the error's curve at the present time (this is the "differential" part). A PID loop always adds its result to the current output, so that it effortlessly floats to a new steady output level.

What is PID?
 A Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller or Proportional-IntegralPID is a standard feedback loop component in industrial control applications. It measures an applications. "output" of a process and controls an "input", with a goal of maintaining the output at a target value, which is called the "setpoint". An example of a PID "setpoint". application is the control of a process temperature, although it can be used to control any measurable variable which can be affected by manipulating some other process variable. For example, it can be used to control pressure, flow rate, chemical composition, force, speed or a number of other variables.

What is PID?
 The basic idea is that the controller reads a sensor. sensor. Then it subtracts the measurement from a desired "setpoint" to determine an "error". The error is then setpoint" treated in three different ways simultaneously:
 Proportional - To handle the present, the error is multiplied by a negative proportional constant P, and sent to the output. P represents the band over which a controller's output is proportional to the error of the system. E.g. for a heater, a controller with a proportional band of 10degC and a setpoint of 20deg C would have an output of 100% at 10 deg C, 50% at 15 Deg C and 10% at 1.9 deg C. Adding the change to the output makes the output self-adjusting. For example, if the selfburner were to get dirty, decreasing the heater's efficiency, the baseline output would just drift upwards a bit, and then re-stabilize. re-

What is PID?
 Integral - To handle the past, the error is integrated (or averaged, or summed) over a period of time, and then multiplied by a constant I, and added to the proportional output. I represents the steady state error of the system. Using the Proportional term alone it is not possible to reach a steady set point temperature. Real world processes are not perfect and are subject to a number of environmental variables. As these variables are often constant they, can be measured and compensated for.

What is PID?
Using the Proportional example above; at 19.9 deg C the controller output is 1%, at this temperature environmental losses through heat transmission are 3%. In this scenario the system controller will never be able to reach setpoint, setpoint, however it can be corrected by introducing an Integral term, which will attempt to remove errors term, that last for some time. In practice, the Integral term of a controller only considers a relatively short history of the controller.

What is PID?
 Derivative - To handle the future, the first derivative of the error (its rate of change) is calculated with respect to time, and multiplied by another constant D, and summed with the proportional and integral terms. The derivative term is used to govern a controller's response to a change in the system. The larger the derivative term the more rapidly the controller will respond to changes in the process value. This is a good thing to reduce when trying to dampen a controller's response to short term changes.

What is PID?  The generic transfer function for a PID controller is: H(s) = (Ds2 + Ps + I)/ (s + C); with C being a constant (typically .01 or .001).

Linear or feedback controls  Most real feedback loops are concerned about wearing out control machinery like valves, by adjusting them many times per second. Therefore, they often have a deadband, a region around the current deadband, value in which no control action occurs. In commercial controls, the deadband is programmable.

Linear or feedback controls  Another common method is to filter the feedback loop. A filter eliminates undesirable frequencies (cycles) from the system under control, which perfectly eliminates oscillations. Many systems oscillate at just one frequency. By filtering out that frequency, one can use very "stiff" feedback and the system can be very responsive without shaking itself apart.

Linear or feedback controls

 Some feedback controls operate through complex indirect effects. For example, in an airplane's autopilot, the flight plan determines the desired autopilot, numbers (where to move) that drives everything. Each mechanical control has a differential equation that takes the desired movement in six different axes (roll, pitch, yaw, forward, back and up), and calculates the control's position. Usually each input and output number is filtered for particular oscillations of the aircraft or the control part.

Linear or feedback controls

 The most complex linear control systems developed to date are in oil refineries (Model (Model Predictive Control). The chemical reaction paths Control). and control systems are normally designed together using specialized computer-aided-design computer-aidedsoftware. When the automated control-system controldesign techniques pioneered by oil refinery controls were applied to aircraft control systems, they caused a revolution, speeding design times by a hundred-fold or more. Now, the core codes of hundredmany modern aircraft autopilots are actually themselves coded by computer programs.

Linear or feedback controls

 Feedback loops can be combined and modified in many ways. Usually if a system has several measurements to be controlled, a feedback loop will be present for each of them.