Introduction to Seismic Interpretation

Stratigraphic Interpretation

Contents
AVO Seismic attributes Time-lapse (4-D) seismic Multicomponent (shear wave) seismic

Amplitude variation with offset 1. n. [Geophysics] Variation in seismic reflection amplitude with change in distance between shotpoint and receiver that indicates differences in lithology and fluid content in rocks above and below the reflector. AVO analysis is a technique by which geophysicists attempt to determine thickness, porosity, density, velocity, lithology and fluid content of rocks.
Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

Hampson-Russell

 The distribution of energy amongst the reflected and transmitted waves depends on the angle of incidence (theta) and physical properties of the layers above and below the interface.

VS/VP and Poissons Ratio ( )

VS = --VP

1 - 2 2 = -----------2(1- 2) Important for amplitude-versus-offset studies

AVO Principles
The shear modulus of a rock does not change when the fluid is changed. However, the bulk modulus changes significantly when the fluid changes. As such, the p-wave velocity of a rock will change as hydrocarbon saturation changes whereas the s-wave velocity will change relatively little (there is a slight density effect). Poissons ratio changes

Shuey (simplified):
Normal Incidence Reflectivity RC(U) $ NIP cos2 U + Poisson Reflectivity (W 2 - W 1) (W 2 + W 1) 12 sin2 U

RC(U) = reflection amplitude for incident angle U NIP = Normal incidence p-wave reflection W 2 , W 1 - Poissons ratios for lower & upper layers respectively

Amplitude Variation with Offset (AVO)

Shuey's AVO Approximation using U = (U1 + U2)/2

Good to about 10 degrees below critical angle.

U= 10o

0.5

0.4 0.3

U= 60o Shale

Shale / wet sand

0.2 0.1 Amplitude

Sand

0.0 -0.1

-0.2

Shale / gas sand

-0.3 -0.4 -0.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Angle of Incidence, U1

For shale overlying water-filled sand, there is little variation in reflection amplitude with increasing offset (blue curve). The amplitude from the shale/gas sand interface shows a strong increase in absolute amplitude of the trough of the reflection (red curve).
Courtesy Chroma Energy

Amplitude Variation with Offset (AVO)

Courtesy Chroma Energy

Class III
Bright Spot

AVO Anomaly Class II

Phase Change

Class I
Dim Spot

Amplitudes/DHI

|Amplitude|

Slope (gradient) Intercept

Sin2 U
Variations in amplitude with offset approximated by: R( ) = A + Bsin2 A slope (P in Europe) B gradient (G in Europe)

0.20 0.15 0.10

Gradient

0.05 0.0 -0.05 -0.10 -0.15

Class IV

Ba ck gr o

un d

tre

Class III
-0.12

Class Class I II
-0.04 0 0.04 0.12

nd

-0.20 -0.20

0.20

R0

Core Labs

AVO Crossplots
Intercept gradient cross-plot shows different fields, corresponding to different AVO anomaly types Gradient and intercept derived from analysis of pre-stack data Need to establish a background trend wet sands Castagnas mudrock line

Castagna et al., 1985

For fine-grained rocks, Biot-Gassman model doesnt work well. Castagna et al. compiled available data and defined a mudrock line that relates Vp to Vs (velocities in km/s): Vp = 1.16 Vs + 1.36 -NOTE: Coefficients for mudrock line vary from basin to basin

 The mudrock line is used to predict the background response for wet sands on Gradient vs Intercept plots Deviations from the background trend are identified as AVO anomalies

Hampson-Russell

A sample cross-plot (left) showing gradient and intercept values obtained from gathers (pre-stack). Regions are circled and assigned different colors by the interpreter: Grey is the background trend, yellow is the top of a gas sand, and red x corresponds to base of a gas sand. The software will show the location of these data points in the stacked section.

AVO Summary
The most useful setting for the technique is still for gas detection in young, shallow, porous, poorly consolidated clastic rocks. Despite the success, there have been significant failures, often due to the presence of fizz water, sub-economic accumulations of gas that can produce impressive AVO anomalies because even small amounts of gas significantly affect Vp and hence Poissons ratio.

AVO Summary
AVO analyses should be thought of as an additional tool that is to be added to other geophysical and geological approaches.

Four principal attributes Reflection strength, instantaneous phase and instantaneous frequency are complex-trace attributes

Seismic amplitude is the basic measurement of seismic data Each trace consists of a time series of amplitude measurements.

For 8-bit data, amplitudes theoretically range from 128, 16-bit data theoretically range from 32,768 and 32-bit data range from 4,294,967,296. 32- and 16-bit data have more dynamic range than 8-bit data, but take up correspondingly more amounts of storage space.

You should work with 16- or 32-bit data when doing quantitative attribute analyses.

Bright Spot

Phase Change

Dim Spot

Amplitudes/DHI

Amplitude
Not all hydrocarbon accumulations produce detectable amplitude changes. Not all changes in seismic amplitude are associated with changes in fluid saturation. Changes in lithology, bed thickness, porosity and other factors can cause changes in seismic amplitude. It only takes a small amount of gas to generate an impressive looking bright spot; not all are associated with commercial accumulations of hydrocarbon.

Reflection strength is amplitude independent of phase.

Reflection strength is also sometimes referred to as instantaneous amplitude , amplitude envelope , or simply envelope .

Reflection strength, like seismic amplitude, shows acoustic impedance contrasts and so is useful for identifying bright spots, tuning effects (although the maximum reflection strength occurs at a different thickness than the tuning thickness for seismic amplitude), interference, etc.

Instantaneous Phase
Instantaneous phase is phase independent of amplitude, and its values are in degrees and range from +180 to 180. Because instantaneous phase contains no amplitude information, it is commonly used to examine reflection (i.e., stratigraphic) continuity; changes in amplitude along a reflection can sometimes give the impression of lateral discontinuity.

some interpreters prefer to pick horizons on instantaneous phase versions of the data.

Instantaneous frequency is the rate of change of phase. Its values are in cycles/second (Hertz). Instantaneous frequency is useful for detecting tuning effects (although peak frequency occurs at a different thickness than for tuning of seismic amplitude), fractures, gas (see next slide) and other features.

The bright spots (high amplitudes) in map view at top correspond to low frequency shadows (yellow and orange) in the transect below.

Both are qualitative indicators of gas.

The presence of gas at this level is confirmed by wells (not shown) producing from this level.

Tertiary deposits.

 A whole seismic line/volume may be converted to an attribute line/volume, or an attribute may be derived and extracted with respect to a horizon. Extraction along a horizon (e.g., horizon slice) Extraction in a window above/below a horizon (e.g., average amplitude) Extraction between two horizons (e.g., average absolute amplitude, peak spectral frequency)

Attribute Studies
In the mid-1990s it became apparent that empirical correlations could sometimes be found between seismic attributes and log-derived physical properties (e.g., Schultz et al., 1994), and that these correlations could be used to predict the distribution of physical properties away from well control.

Attribute Studies
Although simple linear correlations between a physical property and an attribute are sometimes found, relationships are more often non-linear (e.g., Hart and Chen, 2004) and more than one attribute is needed predict the physical property of interest

Sample cross-plots of a physical property (phi*h) against attributes extracted from the seismic data at the well locations (9 wells)

The graph at left shows no trend. The middle graph shows an inverse relationship (2nd order?) The graph at right shows a positive relationship (2nd order?)

Using more than one attribute (generally) gives a better correlation Using a 2nd-order polynomial gives a better result at least in this case

Neural networks are useful for finding hidden patterns among variables. Unfortunately they can sometimes find relationships that do not exist. Neural networks are particularly useful when working with non-linear relationships, such as those that can sometimes be observed between attributes and physical properties.

Attribute study approach number 1: Horizon-based Extract physical property from wells (net sand, average porosity, etc.) Extract attributes from seismic data at corresponding TWT (i.e., horizon slice) Look for correlations between seismic attributes and physical property at well locations Use correlations, if found, to produce a map of the physical property

Attribute study approach number 2: Interval-based Extract physical property from wells (net sand, average porosity, etc.) Extract attributes from seismic data in appropriate window Look for correlations between seismic attributes and physical property at well locations Use correlations, if found, to produce a map of the physical property

1 mile 2 km

Porosity in irregular pods; pods connected Patchy dolomitization Pods generally overlie basement structures Roll of fractures in fluid flow/dolomitization

Attribute study approach number 3: Volume-based Convert target log (porosity, Vsh, etc.) to time domain for all wells Look for correlations between seismic attributes and physical property on a sample-by-sample basis within a specific interval Use correlations, if found, to produce a volume of the physical property (e.g., replacing the amplitude traces with predicted porosity logs)

Trenton

Rose Run

AttributeAttribute-Based Porosity Prediction

8%

Trenton

6%

4%

Rose Run

2%

0%

Porosity developed between overlapping faults of left-lateral system. leftApparent porosity at top and base is an artifact

Class III
Bright Spot

AVO Anomaly Class II

Phase Change

Class I
Dim Spot

Amplitudes/DHI

Horizon Slices (Amplitude Maps) Show how amplitudes vary along a horizon (unique to 3-D)

Time-Lapse Seismic
The seismic signature of a reservoir depends on two primary elements, static reservoir rock properties (e.g., porosity and lithology) and dynamic time-varying properties (e.g., fluid saturation and pore pressure). The comparison of two or more 3-D surveys over the same area in effect cancels the static contribution. Therefore, any observable change is due to dynamic changes of the reservoir and effects of fluid flow. Changes in pore fluid composition (e.g., water/gas/oil saturation), pressure and temperature can all affect the velocity and density of rocks. Any of these changes might be expected when a field is being produced.

Time-Lapse Seismic
Under the right circumstances, changes in density or velocity might be detectable seismically. These changes might manifest themselves in seismic data as changes in amplitude, changes in traveltime or changes in waveform. Some of the technical considerations for assessing the technical risk of a time-lapse study include: a) porosity, b) rock compressibility, c) change in fluid saturation, d) fluid properties, e) seismic image quality, f) repeatability of seismic imaging. Also need to consider economics.

Gannet-C 4D Interpretation
Difference amplitude superimposed on top reservoir depth map

Multi- Component Seismic

Some Applications
Improved P-wave imaging Improved lithology and pore fluid prediction Improved imaging in areas with low P-wave impedance contracts, or high P-wave attenuation Structural imaging beneath gas-invaded zones Seismic reservoir characterization and monitoring Imaging base of salt, subsalt structure and stratigraphy

The Doughnut Field Objectives Conventional seismic

Improve imaging beneath gas Delineate faults to aid drilling in 99

Gas

Acquire 3D multi-component data - seabed receivers - shear waves

RESULTS - 3D MIG COMPARISON

PP PS

Top Balder Time Map, PP Data

Top Balder Time Map, PS Data

Converted-Wave Seismic
Converted-wave seismic data are also collected on land. S-wave sources exist, but: a) are expensive, and b) cause environmental damage or may otherwise not be useable in some situations Use converted waves

Timeslice through a p-p wave volume at the approximate level of a Cretaceous channel.

Courtesy CREWES

Timeslice through a p-s wave volume at the approximate level of a Cretaceous channel. Note the good definition of the channel (red/green).

Courtesy CREWES

Multicomponent Seismic
Issues: Processing: where are the common conversion points? Need to know p- and s-wave velocity field Relation to p-wave data? Different travel times Different reflectors