Theory of Metal Machining

Chapter 23

Contents
Overview of machining technology  Theory of chip formation in machining  Force relationships and the merchant equation  Power and Energy relationships in machining  Cutting temperature


Introduction
 Machining

(shear deformation) (chip)



Advantages
  

0.001 mm)


(0.025

(surface finish) 16 in (0.4 m)

near

1. Overview of machining technology

 Machining

(Cutting tool) (Relative motion)

 Primary 

motion Secondary motion

(Speed) (Feed)

1.1 Types of machining operation




(Turning) / (Milling)

(Drilling) /

Other machining operations, i.e. shaping and planning, broaching, sawing, abrasive, grinding

1.2 The cutting tool



(Types of cutting tools)

1. 2.

(Single-point tools) (Multiple-cutting edge tools)

2 Rake face & Flank

(a) (b)

, rake angle

1.3 Cutting conditions



-Cutting

speed (v) /


-Feed (f) / -depth of cut (d)

(Material removal rate),

MRR = vfd

Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a turning operation

Two categories of machining operations



(Roughing cuts) Used to remove large amount of materials from workpart, High feed and depth of cut, low cutting speed (Finishing cuts) Used to complete the part Low feed and depth of cut

1.4 Machine tools



(machine tools) machining

2. Theory of chip formation in machining

2.1 Orthogonal cutting model

Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process and (b) how it reduce to two dimensions in the side view.

keywords
Rake angle,  Shear angle, / shear plane  Clearance angle  Chip thickness ratio, r = to/tc - Chip thickness before cut, to = ls sin - chip thickness after cut, tc = ls cos( - )


 Shear angle,

= tan-1 (r cos )/(1- r sin ) )/(1

- Shear strain ( ) during chip formation

Shear strain,

= AC/BC = (AD+DC)/BC = tan ( ) + cot

Example 1: orthogonal cutting

In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting, the cutting tool has a rake angle = 10 degree. The chip thickness before the cut = 0.020 in and the chip thickness after the cut = 0.045 in. Calculate the shear plane angle and the shear strain in the operation. Problems 23.1/23.2

Problem 23.1 Chip formation 23.

In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a rake angle = 15 degree. The chip thickness before the cut =0.012 in =0 and the cut yields a deformed chip thickness = 0.026 in. Calculate (a) the shear plane angle and (b) the shear strain for the operation.

Problem 23.2 23.

The cutting conditions in an orthogonal cutting operation are v = 2 m/s, to = 0.25 mm, and w = 3.0 mm. The tool rake angle = 10 degree, which produces a deformed chip thickness tc = 0.54 mm. Determine (a) shear plane angle (b) shear strain (c) material removal rate.

2.2 Actual chip formation

Differences between the orthogonal model and an actual machining process:
1.

(The shear deformation occurs

within a shear zone, rather than a plane of zero shear) thickness. primary shear)

2.
rake face (The secondary shear occurs due to friction between the chip and the tool along the rake face.) As shown in the next picture

Chip formation

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool-chip friction. tool-

Three basic types of chip

a) b) c)

Discontinuous chip brittle material, high tool-chip toolfriction, large feed and depth of cut Continuous chip ductile material, high speed, small feed and depth of cut, sharp cutting edge Continuous chip with built-up edge ductile material, builtlowlow-medium speed

3. Force relationship and the merchant equation

3.1 Force in Metal Cutting
1. Friction force, F 3. Shear force, Fs 5. Cutting force, Fc 2. Normal force, N 4. Normal force to shear, Fn 6. Thrust force, Ft

Equations


.
(Coefficient of friction,

F Q! N

Q ! tan F
= friction angle

X! Q!

Fs F As N

 

Fs X! Shear stress, As

t0 w As ! sin J

As = area of shear plane F ! Fc sin E  Ft cos E

Fs ! Fc cos J  Ft sin J

N ! Fc cos E  Ft sin E
Fn ! Fc sin J  Ft cos J

NOTE: (shear shear

Example 2: Shear stress in Machining



Suppose in Example 1 that cutting force and thrust force are measured during an orthogonal cutting operation with values Fc = 350 lb and Ft = 285 lb. The width of the orthogonal cutting operation w = 0.125 in. Based on these data, determine the shear strength of the work material. Problems 23.3

strength of the work material) SAs

St 0 w cos(F  E ) Fc ! sin J cos(J  F  E )

(Shear Fs =

Fs cos( F  E ) Fc ! cos(J  F  E )

St 0 w sin( F  E ) Ft ! sin J cos(J  F  E )

Fs sin( F  E ) Ft ! cos(J  F  E )

3.2 The Merchant Equation


Fc cos J  Ft sin J X! (t 0 w / sin J )

X !

Fc cos J  Ft sin J (t 0 w / sin J )

E F J ! 45   2 2

Merchant equation

Example 3: Estimating friction angle



Using the data and results from our previous examples, compute (a) the friction angle using the Merchant equation and (b) the coefficient of friction.

Problems

23.4/23.5

Effect of shear plane angle

Effect of shear plane angle, : (a) higher with a resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller with a corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation.

Approximation of turning by the orthogonal model: (a) turning and (b) the corresponding orthogonal cutting

Conversion Key: Turning Operation versus Orthogonal Cutting

Problems

23.9/23.10

4. Power and Energy Relationship in Machining



(energy per unit time)



= Fcv

(horse power), hpc

1 hpc = 33,000 ft-lb/min


, E ~ 90%


Gross power, hpg = hpc/E

Unit horsepower, hpu = hpc/MRR  MRR = vtow  Specific energy, U

U = P/MRR = Fcv / (vtow) = Fc / tow

Example 4: power relationships in

machining


Continuing with our previous examples, let us determine horsepower, unit horsepower, and specific energy required to perform the machining process if the cutting speed = 200 ft/min. Summarizing the data and results from previous examples, t0 = 0.020 in, w = 0.125 in, and Fc = 350 lb. Problems 23.15

Unit horsepower

Specific energy 1 .

Values of Unit Horsepower and Specific Energy for Selected Work Materials Using Sharp Cutting Tools and Chip Thickness before cut, t0=0.010 in (0.25 mm) (0

Correction factor for unit horsepower and specific energy when values of chip thickness before the cut, t0 are different from 0.010 in (0.25 mm) (0

Problems

23.16

Typical distribution of total cutting energy among the tool, work, and chip as a function of cutting speed

5. Cutting Temperature


98% 98% (Heat) Tool-face interface Tool1000F (540C) 1000 (540 2% (Elastic energy)

5.1 Analytical methods



ToolToolchip interface
U vt 0 T ! 0.4 VC K
0.333

Cooks equation

C= (volumetric specific heat of the work material), in-lb/in3-F (J/mm3-C); inK= (thermal diffusivity of the work materia)l, in2/sec (m2/s)

Example 5: Cutting temperature



For the specific energy obtained in Example 4, calculate the increase in temperature above ambient temperature of 70 Use the given data from the previous examples in this chapter: v = 200 ft/min and t0 = 0.020 in. In addition, the t0 volumetric specific heat for the work material = 120 in-lb/in3 F, and thermal indiffusivity = 0.125 in2/sec. Problems 23.22

5.2 Measurement of cutting temperature



ToolTool-chip thermocouple

T = Kvm

K, m
Problems 23.27

Temperature, F

Experimentally measured cutting temperatures plotted against speed for three work materials

Review question  Multiple choice quiz  Problems