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Anupam Shukla
Some material adopted from notes by Artificial Intelligence by Rich Knight Artificial Intelligence and Expert System by Patterson
Introduction
AI is a collection of hard problems which can be solved by humans and other living things, but for which we dont have good algorithms for solving. e. g., understanding spoken natural language, medical diagnosis, circuit design, learning, self-adaptation, reasoning, chess playing, proving math theories, etc. A program that Acts like human (Turing test) Thinks like human (human-like patterns of thinking steps) Acts or thinks rationally (logically, correctly)
Easy Problems in AI
Its been easier to mechanize many of the high level cognitive tasks we usually associate with intelligence in people e. g., symbolic integration, proving theorems, playing chess, some aspect of medical diagnosis, etc.
Hard Problems in AI
Its been very hard to mechanize tasks that animals can do easily walking around without running into things catching prey and avoiding predators interpreting complex sensory information (visual, aural, ) modeling the internal states of other animals from their behavior working as a team (ants, bees) Is there a fundamental difference between the two categories? Why some complex problems (e.g., solving differential equations, database operations) are not subjects of AI
Foundations of AI
Mathematics
Computer Science & Engineering
Philosophy
Economics
AI
Cognitive Science
Biology
Psychology
Linguistics
Foundations of AI
Philosophy: Logic, reasoning, mind as a physical system, foundations of learning, language and rationality. Mathematics: Formal representation and proof algorithms, computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractability, probability. Psychology: adaptation, phenomena of perception and motor control. Economics: formal theory of rational decisions, game theory. Linguistics: knowledge represetatio, grammar. Neuroscience: physical substrate for mental activities. Control theory: homeostatic systems, stability, optimal agent design.
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The birth of AI (1943 1956) Pitts and McCulloch (1943): simplified mathematical model of neurons (resting/firing states) can realize all propositional logic primitives (can compute all Turing computable functions) Allen Turing: Turing machine and Turing test (1950) Claude Shannon: information theory; possibility of chess playing computers Tracing back to Boole, Aristotle, Euclid (logics, syllogisms)
Architecture of AI machine
At the early stage of programs of AI, common machine used for conventional programming were also used for AI programming. AI programs deal with more relational operators than number crusting, hence new architecture was proposed for the evolution of AI programs. Most of this architecture are used in research laboratory, and are not available in the open commercial market. This special architecture, called LISP and PROLOG machine.
Possible Approaches
Like humans Well
Rational agents
Think Act
GPS
Eliza
Heuristic systems
Like humans
Well
Rational agents
Think well
Think
GPS
Act
Eliza
Heuristic systems
Develop formal models of knowledge representation, reasoning, learning, memory, problem solving, that can be rendered in algorithms. There is often an emphasis on a systems that are provably correct, and guarantee finding an optimal solution.
Like humans
Well
Rational agents
Act well
Think
GPS
For a given set of inputs, generate an appropriate output that is not necessarily correct but gets the job done.
Act
Eliza
Heuristic systems
A heuristic (heuristic rule, heuristic method) is a rule of thumb, strategy, trick, simplification, or any other kind of device which drastically limits search for solutions in large problem spaces. Heuristics do not guarantee optimal solutions; in fact, they do not guarantee any solution at all: all that can be said for a useful heuristic is that it offers solutions which are good enough most of the time. Feigenbaum and Feldman, 1963, p. 6
Like humans
Well
Rational agents
Think
GPS
Eliza Act Cognitive science approach systems Focus not just on behavior and I/O but also look at reasoning process. Computational model should reflect how results were obtained. Provide a new language for expressing cognitive theories and new mechanisms for evaluating them GPS (General Problem Solver): Goal not just to produce humanlike behavior (like ELIZA), but to produce a sequence of steps of the reasoning process that was similar to the steps followed by a person in solving the same task.
Heuristic
Like humans
Well
Rational agents
Think
GPS
Act
Eliza
Heuristic systems
Behaviorist approach. Not interested in how you get results, just the similarity to what human results are. Exemplified by the Turing Test (Alan Turing, 1950).
Turing Test
Three rooms contain a person, a computer, and an interrogator. The interrogator can communicate with the other two by teleprinter. The interrogator tries to determine which is the person and which is the machine. The machine tries to fool the interrogator into believing that it is the person. If the machine succeeds, then we conclude that the machine can think.
Eliza
ELIZA: A program that simulated a psychotherapist interacting with a patient and successfully passed the Turing Test. Coded at MIT during 1964-1966 by Joel Weizenbaum. First script was DOCTOR. The script was a simple collection of syntactic patterns not unlike regular expressions Each pattern had an associated reply which might include bits of the input (after simple transformations (my p your) Weizenbaum was shocked at reactions: Psychiatrists thought it had potential. People unequivocally anthropomorphized. Many thought it solved the NL problem.
Deep Blue defeated the reigning world chess champion Garry Kasparov in 1997 Proved a mathematical conjecture (Robbins conjecture) unsolved for decades No hands across America (driving autonomously 98% of the time from Pittsburgh to San Diego) During the 1991 Gulf War, US forces deployed an AI logistics planning and scheduling program that involved up to 50,000 vehicles, cargo, and people NASA's on-board autonomous planning program controlled the scheduling of operations for a spacecraft Proverb solves crossword puzzles better than most humans
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Strive for
GENERALITY EXTENSIBILITY
Capture rational deduction patterns Tackle problems with no algorithmic solution Represent and manipulate KNOWLEDGE, rather than DATA A new set of representation and programming techniques: HEURISTICS
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Understand natural language robustly (e.g., read and understand articles in a newspaper) Surf the web Interpret an arbitrary visual scene Learn a natural language Play Go well Construct plans in dynamic real-time domains Refocus attention in complex environments Perform life-long learning
Machine Learning
Planning
NLP
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Vision
Robotics
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Expert Systems
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/ cities
states city may be visited only once cities must be kept as state information
each
visited
initial
state point (operators) cities visited from one location to another one
starting no
all
agent path
cost
distance
states
positions
VLSI Layout
of components, wires on a
chip
initial
incremental:
complete-state:
incremental:
wire
complete-state:
move wire
goal
all
components path
may
Robot Navigation
states
locations position
of actuators
initial
state
position (dependent on the
start
task)
successor
function (operators)
of actuators
movement, actions
goal
test cost
be very complex
energy consumption
task-dependent
path
may
distance,
Assembly Sequencing
states
location
of components
initial
no
state
components assembled
successor
place
function (operators)
component
goal
test
fully assembled
system
path
cost
of moves
number
the initial state to a goal state sequence of actions as defined by successor function (operators)
general
check
procedure
for goal state the current state
the set of reachable states failure if the set is empty
expand
determine return
select move
a
Some references; Daniel C. Dennet. Consciousness explained. M. Posner (edt.) Foundations of cognitive science Francisco J. Varela et al. The Embodied Mind J.-P. Dupuy. The mechanization of the mind
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Some references
Understanding Intelligence by Rolf Pfeifer and Christian Scheier. Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problemsolving by George Luger. Computation and Intelligence: Collective readings edited by George Luger. Paradigms of Artificial Intelligence Programming: Case Studies in Common Lisp by Peter Norvig.
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