Antenna Design

Chapter 2 Antenna Basics

Cheng-Chi Yu

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Contents

Basic parameter Patterns Beam area Beam efficiency Directivity and gain Physical and effective apertures Scattering aperture and radar cross section The radio link (Friis formula)

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Contents

Apertures of dipoles and /2 antennas Radiation resistance Antenna impedance Antenna duality Sources of radiation Field zones Shape-impedance considerations polarization

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Basic Antenna Parameters

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How to produce radiation

A radio antenna nay be defined as the structure associated with the region of transition between a guided wave and a freespace wave. The antenna is a device which interfaces a circuit and space. Radiation is produced by accelerated charge. AC current flowing on metal radiates electromagnetic wave. So, time-changing current radiates and accelerated charge radiates.

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Basic radiation equation

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The currents on the transmission line flow out on the antenna and end there, but the fields associated with them keep on going. An antenna is a transition device, or transducer, between a guided wave and a free-space wave, or vice-versa.

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 :Practical Antenna Handbook (eBook) by Carr, Joseph J.Publication: New York McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001.

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 :Practical Antenna Handbook (eBook) by Carr, Joseph J.Publication: New York McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001.

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Radiation resistance Rr is not related to any resistance in the antenna itself but is a resistance coupled from space to the antenna terminals. (That is a view point from circuit and may be thought of as a virtual resistance.) A receiving antenna may be regarded as a remote-sensing temperature measuring device. The radiation resistance, the antenna temperature, and the radiation patterns are functions of the frequency.

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Patterns

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Coordinates System
Rectangular

coordinates Cylinder coordinates Sphere coordinates

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Patterns

The radiation patterns are three dimensional quantities involving the variation of field or power (proportional to the field squared) as a function of the spherical coordinates and .

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Patterns

To completely specify the radiation pattern with respect to field intensity and polarization requires three patterns:

The component of the electric field as a function of the angles and or E ( , ). (Figure 2-3 and 2-4) The component of the electric field as a function of the angles and or E ( , ). The phase of these fields as a function of the angles and or ( , ) and ( , ).

Principal plane patterns (as in the xz and yz planes in Fig. 2-3)

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HPBW: the angular beamwidth at the half-power level FNBW: the beamwidth between first nulls

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Normalized field pattern

Normalized field pattern is dimensionless The half-power level occurs at E ( , )n=1/(2)0.5=0.707

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Far-field condition

Far-field:
at

distances that are large compared to the wavelength, the shape of the field pattern is independent of distance.

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Normalized power pattern

Expressed in terms of the power per unit area (Poynting vector)

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BEAM AREA A (BEAM SOLID ANGLE)

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Solid angle

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Beam area A

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Radiation intensity

Radiation intensity U: The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle (W/sr ; W/deg2) The normalized power pattern can be expressed in terms of U:

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Beam efficiency

The (total) beam area consists of the main beam area plus the minor-lobe area

Beam efficiency: The ratio of the main beam area to the total beam area

Stray factor: The ratio of the minor-lobe area to the total beam area

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Directivity D and Gain G

Directivity D: the ratio of the maximum power density P( , )max (W/m2) to its average value over a sphere as observed in the far field of an antenna.

D 1

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Directivity D

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, D
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Directivity D

For an antenna that radiates over only half a sphere the beam area A = 2 sr, the D is :

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Directivity D

The idealized isotropic antenna ( A = 4 sr) has the lowest possible D=1. All actual antennas have directivities greater than 1 (D>1) The simple short dipole has a beam area A = 2.67 sr and D=1.5 (=1.76dBi)

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Directivity D

If the HPBW of an antenna are known, then

For example:

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Directivity D

Since the upper equation neglects minor lobes, a better approximation:

For example:

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Gain G

The gain of an antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than the directivity D due to ohmic losses or mismatching in feeding the antenna . Gain G of an antenna:

K may be close to unity in many well-designed antennas. G D Gain can be measured by comparing with a reference antenna of known gain.

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Directivity and resolution

The resolution of an antenna may be defined as equal to half the beamwidth between first nulls (FNBW)/2

The number N of radio transmitters or point sources of radiation distributed uniformly over the sky which an antenna can resolve is given approximately by :

so, D = N, the directivity is equal to the number of point sources in the sky that the antenna can resolve

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Antenna apertures

Physical aperture Ap Suppose the horn extracts all the power from the wave over entire physical aperture, then the total power P absorbed from the wave is:

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Antenna apertures

The effective aperture Ae is less than the physical aperture Ap Aperture efficiency: Aperture-beam-area relation: All antennas have an effective aperture which can be calculated or measured.

For example: an idealized isotropic antenna

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Expressions for directivity D

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The condition of maximum power transfer

The condition of maximum power transfer (antenna assumed lossless):

RL = Rr
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Effective height

The effective height may be defined as the ratio of the induced voltage to the incident field

h = V/E (m)

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If the current distribution of the dipole were uniform, its effective height would be l. The actual current distribution is nearly sinusodial with an average value 2/ = 0.64 of the maximum, so that its effective height h = 0.64 l. (assumed the antenna is oriented for maximum response)

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The average current is of the maximum so that so that its effective height h = 0.5 l. (assumed the antenna is oriented for maximum response)

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Effective height

Another definition of The effective height (consider the transmitting case)

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Effective aperture effective height

where Zo = intrinsic impedance of space (= 377 )

The parameter effective height is useful for some types of antennas, such as tower-type antennas, small antennas. The parameter effective aperture has more general application to all types of antennas.

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Radio communication link

Assuming lossless, matched antennas:

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Friis transmission formula

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Fields from oscillating dipole

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Fields from oscillating dipole

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Antenna field zones

The fields around an antenna may be divided into two principal regions:

Near field (Fresnel zone) Far field (Fraunhofer zone)

The boundary between the two zone may be arbitrarily taken to be at a radius:

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Antenna field zones

In the far field, the shape of the field pattern is independent of the distance. In the near field, the shape of the field pattern depends, in general, on the distance.

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The region near the poles of the sphere acts as a reflector. The reciprocating energy represents reactive power that is trapped near the antenna like in a resonator.
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Shape-impedance considerations
unidirectional

omnidirectional

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Shape-impedance considerations

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Polarization

The polarization of an electromagnetic wave is defined by the direction in which its electric field vector is oriented over at least one cycle of oscillation. Classification

Linear polarization

Horizontal polarization Vertical polarization Left circular polarization Right circular polarization

Circular polarization

Elliptical polarization

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Polarization

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Linear polarization

The E field at all times in the y-direction, this wave is said to be linearly polarized (in the y direction)

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Elliptical polarization

The electric field of a wave traveling in the z direction have both a y component and an x component ,with a phase difference between the components, the wave is said to be elliptically polarized. At a fixed value of z the electric vector E rotates as a function of time, the tip of the vector describing an ellipse called the polarization ellipse. The ratio of the major to minor axes of the polarization ellipse is called the Axial Ratio (AR)

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Elliptical polarization and circular polarization

AR = E2 / E1 For E1 = E2 ( AR = 1 ) circular polarization For E1 = 0 ( AR = ) linear polarization

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Polarization ellipse equation

If the wave is traveling in the positive z direction, the electric components in the x and y directions are:

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Polarization ellipse equation

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Polarization ellipse equation

If E1 = 0, the wave is linearly polarized in the y direction. If E2 = 0, the wave is linearly polarized in the x direction. If = 0 and E1 = E2 , the wave is linearly polarized but in a plane at an angle of 45o with respect to the x axis ( = 45o).

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circular polarization

If E1 = E2 and = 90o , the wave is circularly polarized.

When = +90o, the wave is left circularly polarized. When = -90o, the wave is right circularly polarized.

The IEEE definition is opposite to the classical optics definition which had been in use for centuries. A left-handed helical antenna radiates ( or receives) left circular (IEEE) polarization.

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Poynting vector for elliptically and circularly polarized waves

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