CARBOHYDRATES

Originally called SACCHARIDES (Sugars)

Chemical Nature


Carbohydrates contain CARBON, HYDROGEN, and OXYGEN with a ratio of 2:1 as in a water molecule hence the name carbo hydrate. The general formula is CnH2nOn with the simplest unit as C6H12O6 or a monosaccharide

Classification of CHO according to Complexity of Molecules



Monosaccharides one sugar unit



GlucoseGlucose-grape sugar, dextrose, corn sugar Acid hydrolysis of starch, digestive end product of sugars and starches FructoseFructose-fruit sugar or levulose Digestive end product of sucrose GalactoseGalactose-not found free in nature-digestive end natureproduct of lactose hydrolysis MannoseMannose-hydrolysis of gums and mannosans

Classification of CHO (contd)

 Oligosaccharidehas 2 to 10 saccharides Oligosaccharide
 Disaccharides-2 sugar unit Disaccharides Sucrose-table sugar or cane sugar Sucrose Lactose-milk sugar Lactose Maltose-malt sugar-from malted products, sprouted cereal, Maltosesugaraction of diastase on starch cereal not found free in nature

 Trisaccharide-3 sugar units Trisaccharide Raffinose-from sugar beets Raffinose Melizotose-from honey, poplars, conifers Melizotose-

 Tetrasaccharide-4 to ten sugar units Tetrasaccharide Stachyose-from peas, beets, lima beans Stachyose-

Polysaccharide Polysaccharidemore than 10 sugar units

Digestible
StarchStarch-from cereal grains, rice, wheat, rye, sorghum, millet, tubers DextrinsDextrins-toasted bread, intermediate products of starch digestion Glycogen or animal starch-liver,oyster, muscle meat starch-

Partially digestible
GalactogensGalactogens-Pectin, snail, agar-agar agarInulinInulin-Tubers and roots of dandelion and artichoke onions, garlic MannosansMannosans-legumes and plant gums PentosansPentosans-Fruits and gums

Indigestible
CelluloseCellulose-from skins of fruits, covering of nuts and legumes, stems, mature leaves Hemicellulose-agarHemicellulose-agar-agar from seaweeds, pectins from slightly unripe fruits

Monosaccharides
Glucose Glucosealso known as dextrose or grape sugar
Most important sugar in human metabolism, thats why it is called physiologic sugar, Found in free nature in fruits, honey, corn syrup, sweet corn, certain roots, Principal product of hydrolysis from starch and cane sugar, In the body, it is formed from starch digestion In metabolism, glucose is the circulating carbohydrate, All other sugars are converted into glucose and oxidized in the cells to release energy

Fructose
 

Sweetest of all sugars, Found preformed in honey, ripe fruits and some vegetables Changed to glucose in the liver and intestine and glucose is the form that is oxidizable to yield energy. Also called levulose because it is a levorotatory form of sugar, that is, it rotates a polarized light to the left.

Monosaccharides


Glucose also known as dextrose or grape sugar

  

 

Most important sugar in human metabolism, that s why it is called physiologic sugar, Found in free nature in fruits, honey, corn syrup, sweet corn, certain roots, Principal product of hydrolysis from starch and cane sugar, In the body, it is formed from starch digestion In metabolism, glucose is the circulating carbohydrate, All other sugars are converted into glucose and oxidized in the cells to release energy

 Galactose

Not found free in nature but hydrolyzed from lactose or malt sugar Changed to glucose in human metabolism In turn glucose is converted to galactose to form milk sugar or lactose in breast milk A component of some compound lipids called cerebrosides which are found in the brain and nerve tissues.

Disaccharides
 Sucrose
Table or white sugar The most familiar of the 3 disaccharides and is what people mean they speak of sugar This is what is obtained by refining the juice from sugar beets or sugar cane to provide the brown, white, and powdered sugars available in the supermarket. Occurs naturally in many fruits and vegetables When you eat food containing sucrose, enzymes in your digestive tract split sucrose into its glucose and fructose components. Sucrose is often the principal ingredient of carbonated beverages, candy, cakes, frostings, cookies and other concentrated sweets

 Lactose

Principal carbohydrate of milk Most human babies are born with the digestive enzymes to split lactose units into its 2 monosaccharide parts, glucose and galactose The least sweet among the sugars In the body, especially among pregnant women, lactose can be formed from glucose Some people have lactose intolerance, a disease resulting from a lack of the enzyme lactase that splits lactose into glucose and galactose Symptoms of lactose intolerance-stomach intolerancecramps, distention, and diarrhea

 Maltose
 a plant sugar that consist of 2 glucose units  Also called malt sugar because it is derived from the digestion of starch with the aid of the enzyme diastase found in sprouting grains.  Does not occur free in nature but can be hydrolyzed by amylases from starches of cereal grains  Is not readily fermented by bacteria and this is beneficial for infant feeding  Usually maltose is combined with dextrins (dextrimaltose) for infant milk formulas

Polysaccharides


Starch


  

The worlds most abundant and cheap form of carbohydrate in plants: in grains, seeds, tubers, roots, and unripe fruits. Starch molecules have 2 components: amylose, which is a straight chain of glucose units, and amylopectin a branched chain Complete hydrolysis of starch yields glucose units while partial hydrolysis yields dextrin and maltose. 2nd important source of starch is the legume (bean and pea family) Legumes include peanuts and dry beans such as butter beans, kidney beans, baked beans, black-eyed peas (cowpeas), chickpeas (garbanzo beans), and soybeans. 3rd major source of starch comes from root vegetables (tubers) such as potatoes and yams.

Dextrin-intermediate product of starch

digestion or formed from The action of dry heat on starch (as in toasting bread or browning of cake crust in the oven) produces dextrin Glycogen - called animal starch


Storage form of CHO in the body chiefly in the liver and muscles Muscle glycogen is used directly to supply energy for the sorrounding tissues as during exercise and work. Liver glycogen may be changed to glucose and circulated as such by the blood to other parts of the body,

Glycogen (contd)


In food sources, glycogen is limited to the liver and in oysters and only minutes after slaughter of the animal Glycogen stores are readily converted into lactic acid, Normally only 355 g of glycogen is present in the body, hence, a constant supply of carbohydrate is needed, Excess amounts of glucose beyond the limits of glycogen storage will be converted to body fat and stored in adipose tissues.

Fiber also called roughage

The indigestible part of food, Most well-known is cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, mucilages, and gums constitute the rest Most fibers are polysaccharides or chains of sugars, just as starch is, but in fibers the sugar units are held together by bonds that the human digestive system cannot break Cellulose is the main constituent of plant cell walls, so it is found in all vegetables, fruits, and legumes Hemicellulose is the main constituent of cereal fibers, found in agar, pectins, woody fibers, leaves and stems Pectins are abundant in vegetables and fruits especially citrus fruits and apples, used by the food industry to thicken jelly and keep salad dressing from separating. Gums and mucilages have similar structures. They are used as additives or stabilizers by the food industry Lignins are the tough, woody parts of plants. Few food people eat contain much lignin.

 

Functions of Dietary Fiber

Provides bulk, acts as a broom in our digestive tract to prevent constipation. Recently shown to prevent diverticular disease, reduce incidence of colon cancer, and reduce blood cholesterol level. Decreases mucosal absorption which is important in the management of diabetes An average of 20 to 30 grams of fiber daily is recommended for good health. People unaccustomed to high fiber diet may experience abdominal discomfort upon consuming fiber rich foods. Too much fiber in the diet interferes with absorption of certain drugs and could irritate mucosal lining of the intestine. Be sure to increase water intake when increasing fiber in the diet.

Functions of Carbohydrate in the Body

Chief source of energy Cheap and main energy food Protein-sparer Regulator of fat metabolism Sole energy source for the brain and nerve tissue Storage form of energy as glycogen Regulator of intestinal peristalsis and provider of bulk

Chief Energy Source

Body cells require a steady and constant supply of energy mainly as glucose Although fat is also an energy source, it is in storage form and not readily available There is only 10 grams of glucose circulating in the blood or a constant of 70 to 100 mg glucose per 100 ml blood This glucose level must be kept constant and ready for utilization

Factors that Lower Blood Sugar Level

Prolonged undernutrition Increased exercise Poor absorption of glucose Liver damage Kidney malfunction Hormonal deficiences like:
Adrenal insufficiency Insulin increase Hypothyroidism Anterior pituitary deficiency

Factors That Increase Blood Sugar Level

Excessive carbohydrate intake Reduced exercise Increased glucose absorption Some liver disorders Toxemias Diabetes mellitus Increase anterior pituitary hormone Hyperactive adrenal cortex Fright and anger

Factors that Maintain Blood Sugar Level

Glycogen-glucose reaction in the liver Conversion of carbohydrate to fat Excretion of glucose Formation of glycogen in the muscle and glycogen utilization Utilization of carbohydrate by other tissues

Carbohydrate as Cheap and Main Energy Food

Carbohydrate foods mainly as cereal grains, sugars, most fruits and starchy vegetables contribute at least 50% of total energy needs of people As staples in the diet, they are low cost and widely distributed around the world Starches and sugars are readily digestible Easily stored in the shelf without refrigeration

Carbohydrate as Protein-Sparer
Energy-giving takes priority over tissuebuilding Thus, if carbohydrate foods are not adequately supplied, protein will be catabolized to provide heat and energy instead of being used for building tissues To spare or save protein for this unique function of body-building, carbohydrate must be adequate in the diet.

More Functions of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates prevent the incomplete oxidation of fat. If energy is not sufficiently supplied by carbohydrates sources, fat catabolism is excessive at a rate the body cannot handle such that ketone bodies are accumulated and acidosis occurs. The brain and nerve tissues utilize only glucose for energy. Lack of glucose or oxygen will result in an irreversible damage to the brain

Storage Form of Energy as Glycogen

About one-third of a kilogram of glycogen or 355 gm is stored in the liver and muscle tissues Muscle glycogen is used for exercise or muscle activity without changing to free blood glucose This is especially important for the heart muscle where glycogen is an immediate source of contractile energy. Glycogen storage in the body is limited, the 365 gm carbohydrate will provide only 13 hours of energy

Carbohydrate Malnutrition
Protein-energy malnutrition as in case of famine and prolonged starvation, ill-effects of a limited total food intake Symptoms decreased blood sugar levels, loss of weight, retarded growth for infants and children, In excessive intake of calories, whether from carbohydrate, protein, or fat, obesity or adiposity becomes the problem If the intake of fat and protein are normal, but the carbohydrate is low, ketosis or acidosis occurs.

Utilization of Carbohydrate
Starch undergoes digestion in the mouth by the action of salivary amylase or ptyalin forming dextrins and maltose. Starch digestion occurs mainly in the intestines (no action in the stomach) where pancreatic amylase converts starch to dextrins, and dextrins to maltose Intestinal maltase completes the digestion to glucose. The enzymes sucrase and lactase of the small intestines act on sucrose and lactose respectively.

Utilization, contd
The simple sugars glucose, fructose, and galactose are activated by phosporylation to be absorbed through the small intestinal walls. In the cells, glucose may be anabolized to release energy, water, and carbon dioxide. Fructose and galactose are first converted to glucose in the liver Complete oxidation of glucose results in the release of energy, production of metabolic water and excretion of carbon dioxide Any excess glucose after fulfilling energy needs will be converted to body fat, a chemical process called lipogenesis

Food Sources of CHO

The most common food sources are sugars, cereal grains and their products rice, corn, oat, bread, noodles; root crops, starchy vegetables and dried legumes, Fruits and milk also contribute good amounts of carbohydrates Use less of simple sugars and more of the complex carbohydrates