Digestive System

Dr Raghuveer Choudhary

Digestive System
DIGESTIVE TRACT tube ~ 9 m long  Gastrointestinal tract or Alimentary canal  DIGESTIVE ORGANS - Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anal canal  ACCESSORY ORGANS - teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas


Digestive Tract GI) Gastrointestinal (GI) tract or alimentary canal

  

Is a muscular tube Extends from oral cavity to anus Passes through:

pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine large intestine anus

INTRODUCTION TO DIGESTION
Food is vital to life because:
provides energy provides building blocks for growth and maintenance

Why do we need a digestive system?

food comes to us as complex molecules complex molecules are too large to be absorbed into the blood What are the complex molecules and what do we do with them? carbohydrates proteins fats monosaccharides (simple sugars) amino acids fatty acids, glycerols, glycerides

Stages of Digestion
MECHANICAL DIGESTION  Physical breakdown  Teeth cutting and grinding - mastication (chewing)  Churning stomach & small intestine  Action of digestive enzymes food to small particles


        

CHEMICAL DIGESTION Macromolecules to monomers Polysaccharides to monosaccharides Proteins to amino acids Fats to glycerol and fatty acids Nucleic acids to nucleotides Done by digestive enzymes produced by: Salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, small intestine Absorbed no digestion vitamins, free amino acids, minerals, cholesterol, water

Forms of Nutrients In Food Protein Carbohydrates Fat DNA, RNA Vit B12 Other vitamins Cholesterol Electrolytes Water Absorbable by Intestine Amino acids Monosaccharides (glucose) Fatty acids, glycerol Bases + monosaccharides B12+intrinsic factor Original form Original form Original form Original form

Major Physiologic Processes of the Gut

    

Motility Secretion Digestion Absorption Elimination

Secretion
Delivery of enzymes, mucus, ions and the like into the lumen, and hormones into blood.

Absorption
Transport of water, ions and nutrients from the lumen, across the epithelium and into blood.

Motility
Contractions of smooth muscle in the wall of the tube that crush, mix and propel its contents.

Functions of the GI Tract

(continued)

 Secretion: Includes both exocrine and endocrine secretions.



Exocrine:
HCl, H20, HC03-, bile, lipase, pepsin, amylase, trypsin, elastase, and histamine are secreted into the lumen of the GI tract.

Endocrine:
Stomach and small intestine secrete hormones to help regulate the GI system.
Gastrin, secretin, CCK, GIP, GLP-1, guanylin, VIP, and somatostatin.

Functions of the GI Tract



(continued)

Digestion:
Breakdown of food particles into subunits

(chemical structure change).



Absorption:
Process of the passage of digestion (chemical

subunits) into the blood or lymph.



Storage and elimination:

Temporary storage and elimination of

indigestible food.

Functions of the GI Tract



Motility:
Movement of of food through the GI tract.  Ingestion:
Taking food into the mouth.


Mastication:
Chewing the food and mixing it with saliva.

Deglutition:
Swallowing the food.

Peristalsis:
Rhythmic wave-like contractions that move food through GI tract.

Mouth Foodstuffs are broken down mechanically by chewing and saliva is added as a lubricant. Esophagus A simple conduit between the mouth and stomach. Stomach Enzymatic digestion of proteins initiated and foodstuffs reduced to liquid form. Liver The center of metabolic activity in the body - provide bile salts to the small intestine, critical for digestion and absorption of fats. Pancreas Provides a potent mixture of digestive enzymes to the small intestine which are critical for digestion of fats, carbohydrates and protein. Small Intestine This is where the final stages of chemical enzymatic digestion occur and where almost all nutrients are absorbed. Large Intestine Water is absorbed, bacterial fermentation takes place and feces are formed.

Mouth (oral cavity)



Foodstuffs are broken down mechanically by chewing and saliva is added as a lubricant.

Mechanical
Teeth Saliva

Enzymatic
Salivary amylase

breakdown of starch and glycogen

Throat (pharynx) & Esophagus



A simple conduit between the mouth and stomach.

Throat junction to esophagus & trachea Epiglottis Esophagus uses peristalsis to move food to stomach

Contracted muscles Relaxed muscles

Stomach
Stores food  Secretes gastric juices Acid chyme

Enzymatic digestion

Stomach

of proteins initiated and foodstuffs reduced to liquid form.

Digestive mechanisms in stomach

Mechanical  Chemical  Enzymatic

Gallbladder Pancreas Cardiac orifice Esophagus

Liver

Pyloric sphincter Stomach

 

 

Mechanical Mixing and churning Smooth muscle Every 20 seconds Chemical Hydrochloric acid (HCl) pH around 2 Also breaks food down Enzymatic Pepsin Breaks down proteins

Cardiac orifice

Esophagus Pyloric sphincter Stomach

Liver

Bile

Gallbladder Stomach Acid chyme Intestinal juice Pancreas Duodenum of small intestine

Liver The center of metabolic activity in the body provide bile salts to the small intestine, critical for digestion and absorption of fats. Pancreas Provides a potent mixture of digestive enzymes to the small intestine which are critical for digestion of fats, carbohydrates and protein.

Small intestine
Most of:

Enzymatic digestion occurs here Absorption of nutrients into the blood stream occurs here

Small intestine

Figure 41.21 p. 859 in Campbell

Carbohydrate digestion Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus Polysaccharides Disaccharides
Salivary amylase

Protein digestion

Nucleic acid digestion

Fat digestion

Smaller polysaccharides, maltose Stomach Proteins

Pepsin

Small polypeptides Lumen of small intestine Polysaccharides

Pancreatic amylases

Polypeptides
Pancreatic trypsin and chymotrypsin

DNA, RNA
Pancreatic nucleases

Fat globules

Bile salts

Maltose and other disaccharides Smaller polypeptides Nucleotides

Fat droplets

Pancreatic carboxypeptidase

Pancreatic lipase

Amino acids Epithelium of small intestine (brush border) Small peptides Disaccharidases
Dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase, and aminopeptidase

Glycerol, fatty acids, glycerides

Nucleotidases

Nucleosides
Nucleosidases and phosphatases

Monosaccharides

Amino acids

Nitrogenous bases, sugars, phosphates

Vein carrying blood to hepatic portal vessel

Most nutrient absorption occurs in small intestine

Muscle layers Large circular folds Villi

Intestinal wall

Large intestine (colon)



Major function is to reabsorb water

Ascending portion of large intestine Ileum of small intestine

Large Intestine Rectum Anus

Appendix Cecum

Large intestine
 

Extends from ileum to the anus Eliminates waste by absorbing water, making liquid waste a solid and store feces in the rectum until released from body Water is absorbed, bacterial fermentation takes place and feces are formed.

Layers of GI Tract


Composed of 4 tunics:
Mucosa. Submucosa.

Muscularis. Serosa.


The Digestive Epithelium

 

Mucosal epithelium is simple or stratified:

depending on location, function, and stresses

Oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus:

mechanical stresses lined by stratified squamous epithelium

Stomach, small intestine, and most of large intestine:

absorption simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells

Mucosa
 

Lines the lumen of GI tract.

Consists of simple columnar epithelium.

Lamina propria:
Thin layer of connective tissue containing lymph

nodules.


Muscularis mucosae:
Thin layer of smooth muscle responsible for the folds.


Folds increase surface area for absorption.

Goblet cells:
Secrete mucus.

Submucosa
Thick, highly vascular layer of connective tissue.  Absorbed molecules enter the blood and lymphatic vessels.  Submucosal plexus (Meissners plexus):

Provide autonomic nerve supply to the

muscularis mucosae.

Muscularis


Responsible for segmental contractions and peristaltic movement through the GI tract.
Inner circular layer of smooth muscle. Outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle.

 

Contractions of these layers move food through the tract; pulverize and mix the food. Myenteric plexus located between the 2 muscle layers. Major nerve supply to GI tract.


Fibers and ganglia from both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Serosa

 

Binding and protective outer layer. Consists of areolar connective tissue covered with simple squamous epithelium.

Peristalsis
Consists of waves of muscular contractions Moves a bolus along the length of the digestive tract-Bolus
is a small, oval mass of digestive contents
Figure 244

Peristaltic Motion
1.

Circular muscles contract behind bolus:

while circular muscles ahead of bolus relax

2.

Longitudinal muscles ahead of bolus contract:

shortening adjacent segments

3.

Wave of contraction in circular muscles:

forces bolus forward

Regulation of the GI Tract



Extrinsic innervation: Parasympathetic nervous system:



Vagus and spinal nerves: Stimulate motility and GI secretions.

Sympathetic nervous system:  Postganglionic sympathetic fibers that pass through submucosal and myenteric plexuses and innervate GI tract: Reduce peristalsis and secretory activity.

Effect of different stimuli on muscle contraction

Stimulus
1. 2. 3.

Effect on muscle
more depolarised smooth muscle, more excitable

Stretch of GI tract wall Acetylcholine release Parasympathetic stimulation

Leads toaction potential generation and smooth muscle contraction. more hyperpolarised smooth muscle, Less excitable and fewer contractions .

4. 5.

Noradrenaline release Sympathetic stimulation

Enteric nervous system (ENS)

myenteric plexus (Auerbachs plexus)

submucosal plexus (Meissners plexus)

Enteric NS 2 plexuses:

Digestive System

Myenteric/Auerbachs (outer) Submucosal/Meissners (inner) 1r fxn:controls GI movts Extends entire length of GIT Excitatory + inhibitory (to pyloric and ileocecal valve sphincters) Controls local intestinal secretion and local blood flow and absorption and local cx of submucosal ms Inner wall of each minute segment of intestine

myenteric plexus (Auerbachs plexus) Excitatory effects Increase the intensity of contraction Increase the rate of the rhythm of contraction Increase the velocity of conduction of contraction along the tract Inhibitory effects

Sphincter

Pyloric sphincter

submucosal plexus (Meissners plexus)

secretion absorption contraction

Extrinsic nervous system

parasympathetic nervous

sympathetic nervous

parasympathetic nervous

increase

Enteric nervous system

sympathetic nervous

norepinephrine

Smooth ENS muscle Decrease Activity of gastrointestinal tract

Nervous Control of the GI Tract

Figure 23.4

Controls of digestive activity are both extrinsic and intrinsic

The entire GI tract is lined with nerve plexuses that result in two reflexes: A. The short reflexes are mediated by the local (enteric) plexuses in response to GI tract stimuli. B. Long reflexes are initiated by stimuli arising within or outside the GI tract. They involve the CNS centers and extrinsic autonomic nerves. C. The stomach and small intestine also contain hormone-producing cells that reach their target cells through the blood. When stimulated, their contents contribute to secretory or contractile activity.
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Digestive System
Processes of Digestion: 1. Movt of food through the alimentary tract 2. Secretion of digestive juices and digestion of food 3. Absorption of H2O, various electrolytes and digestive products 4. Circulation of blood thru GI organs to carry away the absorbed substances 5. Control of all these fxns by local, nervous, and hormonal systems