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Carbon based, high molecular weight, versatile synthetic materials that are built up from monomeric units
Types of Plastics
Thermoplastic
Soften with heated, then solidify when cooled Only physical changes
Thermoset
Polymers that chemically react when heated to form a cross-linked polymer chain network Not reformable with heating
Thermoplastics
Amorphous
Random Structure Tg Polystyrene, Polycarbonate
Semi-Crystalline
Organized Molecular Arrangement Tg, Tm Polyethylene, Polypropylene
Crystallinity
Semi-crystalline Amorphous
Thermoplastics
The ability of plastics to form crystals is largely dependent on the structure of the plastic molecule
Linear plastics with small side groups can form crystalline regions HDPE, LDPE, Acetals, Nylon and PET
Molecular Distribution
Effect of Mw on Viscosity
Log L Low Shear Medium Shear High Shear Low shear lots of entanglements, Mw has direct effect on viscosity Medium shear reduced entanglements Mw has less effect on viscosity High shear few entanglements, Mw has no effect on viscosity
Log X
Narrow MWD
Broad MWD
Mechanical Behavior
Viscoelasticity Creep Stress Relaxation Recovery Loading Rate
Viscoelasticity
Elastic
The material returns to original shape after the load has been removed Linear stress strain response
Viscous
The material will deform or flow under load Nonlinear stress-strain response
Creep
One of the most important results of plastics viscoelastic behavior Deformation over time when a material is subjected to a constant stress The polymer chains slip past one another Some of the slippage is permanent
Creep
Stress Relaxation
Gradual decrease in stress at constant strain Same polymer chain slippage as in creep
Recovery
The degree to which a plastic returns to its original shape after a load is removed
Thermoplastics become stiffer and fail at smaller strain levels as the strain rate increases At higher temperatures plastics lose their stiffness and become more ductile
Flow
Types of Flow
Drag Flow
Caused by the relative motion of one boundary with respect to the other boundary that contains the fluid Two major boundaries in injection unit are the barrel and screw surfaces Since the screw is rotating in a stationary barrel, one boundary is moving relative to the other boundary This causes drag flow to occur
Types of Flow
Pressure Flow
Caused by the presence of pressure gradients Pressure flow is what occurs downstream of the injection unit
Sprue, runner, gate and cavity
Flow occurs because the pressure is higher at the injection unit discharge than in the mold
Types of Flow
For the overall system
The injection unit uses drag flow to move the material and build pressure This pressure buildup at the discharge of the injection unit results in pressure flow through the mold
Shear Rate
Difference in velocity per normal distance The change in shear strain with time Units of seconds-1 Drag Flow
V K ! H
Pressure Flow
y
V ! D/2
Shear Stress
The stress required to achieve a shearing type flow Force divided by the area over which it acts Units of Pascal or psi Drag Flow F
X! A
Pressure Flow
X ! pressure
Shear Viscosity
Internal resistance to shear flow Ratio of shear stress to shear rate Units of poise or Pa-sec
L!
X
y
Shear Heat
Viscous heat generation Heat generated due to shear flow Conversion of mechanical energy to heat through friction Amount is equal to the product of the viscosity and the shear rate squared
y
Q ! L *K 2
Viscosity Temperature
Types of Fluids
Newtonian
A fluid whose viscosity is independent of shear rate
Shear thinning(pseudo-plastic)
A fluid whose viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate
Shear thickening(dilatants)
A fluid whose viscosity increases with increasing shear rate
Flow Behavior
L ! m * (K )
n 1
Mechanical Properties
Important in all applications
Stiffness Hardness Toughness Impact Strength The ability to support loads
Mechanical Properties
Mechanical property data is used to
Select materials Estimate part performance Predict deformation and stresses from applied loads
Mechanical Properties
Most data have been derived from laboratory tests and may not directly apply to your application Data should be used for comparison purposes only because
Difference between testing and end use conditions Material and processing variability Unforeseen environmental or loading conditions
Types of Forces
There are four fundamental forces we deal with in the testing of mechanical properties of plastics
Tensile Compressive Shear Torsion
Compression
Pushing force
Torsional Force
Turning force
F W ! A
(L I! L
Stress-Strain
Elastic Limit
The point after which the plastic will permanently deform Applications that cannot tolerate permanent deformations must stay under the elastic limit
Ultimate Strength
Measures the highest stress value Used for general strength comparisons
Tensile Tester
Measures a plastics stiffness After the test bar is clamped in the jaw, the jaws then move at a constant rate of separation The force required for movement is recorded
Tensile stress at yield establishes an upper limit for applications that can tolerate a small permanent deformation
Ultimate Strength measures the highest stress value during the tensile test
Useful for comparing general strengths between plastics
Poissons Ratio
Parts subjected to tensile or compressive stress deform in two directions Poissons Ratio measures the lateral to longitudinal strains
Poissons Ratio
Usually between 0.35 to 0.42 for plastics Required for many structural analysis calculations
Flexural Tester
Flexural Properties
Compressive Tester
Measures a materials hardness The test specimen is compressed at a constant strain rate between two parallel platens until it ruptures or deforms by a certain percentage
Compressive Properties
Shear Strength
Measures the shearing force required to make holes or tears in the plastic Useful in structural calculations for parts that may fail in shear Data does not account for stress concentrations or mold-in stresses
Tear Strength
The force required to rip the plastic divided by the thickness Provides relative data for comparing materials
Impact Tester
Impact Test
Impact Strength measures a plastics ability to absorb and dissipate energy Hard to relate at actual part performance
Part geometry Temperature Stress concentrations Molding stresses Impact speed
Impact Tests
Izod is most widely used
Uses horizontally notched sample to concentrate impact
Charpy uses a vertically notched sample Use for comparing materials relative impact strength
Hardness Tester
A load is applied to an indentor, which presses against the plastic
Hardness Data
Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion Resistance is measured by applying a Taber Abrader with 250gr weight and a CS 10-F textured abrader to a test specimen for a set number of cycles
Then measuring the changes in volume and transparency
Coefficients of Friction
Ratio of the friction force, the force needed to initiate sliding, to the normal force, the force perpendicular to the contact surface
Creep
Short Term testing gives us data for periodic loading It is not unusual for plastic parts to be subjected to continuous loading or loads that last a long time The viscous nature of plastics make these long term loading to be of interest even if small Creep is the deformation or strain due to viscous or cold flow To design parts that are subjected to long term loading, the designer must utilize creep data
Examples of Creep
Creep
The time and temperature dependent creep modulus of a polymer is
Ec ( t , T ) ! W0 I (t , T )
Manufacturers generate creep data by subjecting molded test specimen to varying stress level and measuring the change in dimension over time
Creep Data
W E! I
Stress Relaxation
Stress relaxation data is used for applications where strain levels remain constant over a long period of time When plastics are stretched, compressed, bent or sheared to a fixed value of strain, the stress value decrease with time due to the viscous effects(molecular relaxation)
Stress Relaxation
The time and temperature dependent relaxation modulus of a polymer is
W (t , T ) E r (t , T ) ! I0
Stress relaxation data is generated by applying a fixed strain to molded samples and measuring the gradual decrease in stress with time
W ! 4000 psi
Fatigue
Fatigue properties are used when designing parts that are subjected to repeated or cyclic loadings Tests are ran in bending, torsion and tension
Fatigue Curves
Thermal Properties
Glass Transition Temperature Melting Temperature Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Deflection Under Load Thermal Conductivity Specific Heat Vicat Softening Temperature
Melting Temperature
While cooling the melt, the specific volume of the melt sharply drops at a temperature which is termed as Tm. This is due to the crystalline regions forming Only for semi-crystalline plastics
Thermal Conductivity
Indicates a materials ability to conduct heat energy Measured in Btu*in/(hr*ft2*F) or W/(K*m) Used to calculate heating and cooling requirements in mold filling, thermal insulation or heat dissipation analysis
Specific Heat
Reflects the heat required to cause a one degree temperature change in a unit mass of material Measured in Btu/lb/F or KJ/kg/C Used in heat transfer calculations from mold filling and cooling analysis
Electrical Properties
Resistivity Dielectric Dissipation Arc Resistance
Resistivity
Measure of a plastics electrical insulating properties Used to compare plastics as electrical insulators Indicates current leakage through an insulating body Should be at least 108 ohm*cm to be considered an insulating material
Dissipation Factor
Measures a plastics tendency to convert current into heat Important in applications such as radar and microwave equipment that run at high frequencies Lower values indicate less power loss and heat generation
Arc Resistance
Measures the number of seconds a plastics surface will resist forming a continuous conductive path while being exposed to high voltage electric arc Plastics with higher values are used in closely spaced conductors, circuit breaker and distributor cap applications
Environmental Properties
Pay close attention to the environment to which the part will be exposed during
Processing Secondary Operations Assembly End Use
Chemical exposure and weather conditions may determine which plastic you choose
Environmental Properties
Water Absorption Hydrolytic Degradation Chemical Resistance Weatherability Gas Permeability
Water Absorption
Plastics absorb water to varying degrees, depending on their molecular structure, fillers and additives Adversely affects both mechanical and electrical properties and causes swelling Measures the amount of water absorbed as a percent of total weight
Hydrolytic Degradation
Exposing plastics to moisture at elevated temperature can lead to hydrolysis
A chemical process that severs polymer chains by reacting with water Reduces the molecular weight and degrades the plastic
Chemical Resistance
Chemical Resistance of a plastic depends on
The chemical Exposure time and temperature Stress level
Type of chemical attack varies with the plastic and the chemical
Degradation Stress cracking Swelling
Weatherability
Plastics in outdoor use are exposed to weather that can affect the performance of the part Ultraviolet radiation can cause embrittlement, fading and surface cracking Actual and accelerated testing Additives and higher molecular weight can improve stability
Gas Permeability
Measures the amount of gas that can pass through a plastic in a given time Used in packaging and medical applications, where the plastic forms a barrier
Other Properties
Density Specific Gravity Specific Volume Transmittance Refractive Index Flammability
Density
Mass per unit volume Useful in converting volume into part weight and cost calculations Expressed in lb/ft3 or Kg/m3
Specific Gravity
The ratio of a material's density to the density of water Used in a variety of calculations and comparisons when relative weight matters
Specific Volume
The reciprocal of density Measured in ft3/lb or m3/Kg
Transmittance
Measures a materials transparency Haze is the percentage of transmitted light passing through a plastic that is scattered Luminous transmittance is the ratio of transmitted light to incident light
Transmittance Data
Refractive Index
Ratio of lights velocity in a vacuum to its velocity as it passes through a plastic Important in optical lens and light-pipe calculations
Flammability
Most Plastics need an additive to meet flame resistance ratings
Oxygen Index measures the percentage of oxygen need to support flame in a plastic sample UL 94 Classes
Established by Underwriter Laboratories to classify the burning behavior of plastics