TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Discuss the systems approach to training and development. 2. Describe the components of training-needs assessment. 3. Identify the principles of learning and describe how they facilitate training. 4. Identify the types of training methods used for managers and nonmanagers. 5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various evaluation criteria. 6. Describe the special training programs that are currently popular.

Training and Development and Other HRM Functions

Availability of training can aid in recruitment Training may permit hiring lessless-qualified applicants Training aids in the achievement of performance Training and development may lead to higher pay

Recruitment

Provide an additional source of trainees Effective selection may reduce training needs A basis for assessing training needs and results A basis for determining employees rate of pay Union cooperation can facilitate training efforts

Selection Performance Appraisal Compensation Management

Training may include a role for Labor Relations the union

The Scope of Training

Training
 Effort initiated by an organization to foster learning among its members.  Tends to be narrowly focused and oriented toward short-term performance concerns.

Development
 Effort that is oriented more toward broadening an individuals skills for the future responsibilities.

Figure 71 7

Training Dollars Spent by Employee Type

Source: Holly Dolezalek, 2004 Industry Report, Training (October 2004): 28.

The Systems Approach to Training and Development

Four Phases
 Needs assessment  Program design  Implementation  Evaluation

Figure 72 7

Systems Model of Training

Phase 1: Conducting the Needs Assessment

Organization Analysis
 An examination of the environment, strategies, and resources of the organization to determine where training emphasis should be placed.

Task Analysis
 The process of determining what the content of a training program should be on the basis of a study of the tasks and duties involved in the job.

Person Analysis
 A determination of the specific individuals who need training.

Needs Assessment for Training

Competency assessment
 Analysis of the sets of skills and knowledge needed for decisionoriented and knowledge-intensive jobs.

ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS

of environment, strategies, and resources to determine where to emphasize training of the activities to be performed in order to determine the KSAs needed. of performance, knowledge, and skills in order to determine who needs training.

TASK ANALYSIS

PERSON ANALYSIS

Figure 73 7

Needs Assessment for Training

Highlights in HRM 1

Notes on Rapid Needs Assessment

NOTE 1: Look at the problem scope. NOTE 2: Do organizational scanning. NOTE 3: Play give and take. NOTE 4: Check lost and found. NOTE 5: Use plain talk. NOTE 6: Use the Web. NOTE 7: Use rapid prototyping. NOTE 8: Seek out exemplars.
Source: Condensed from Ron Zemke, How to Do a Needs Assessment When You Think You Dont Have Time, Training 35, no. 3 (March 1998): 3844. Reprinted with permission from the March 1998 issue of Training Magazine. Copyright 1998. Bill Communications, Inc., Minneapolis, MN. All rights reserved. Not for resale.

Phase 2: Designing the Training Program

Issues in training design

Instructional objectives Trainee readiness and motivation Principles of learning Characteristics of successful trainers

Phase 2: Designing the Training Program

Instructional Objectives
 Represent the desired outcomes of a training program


Performance-centered objectives

 Provide a basis for choosing methods and materials and for selecting the means for assessing whether the instruction will be successful.

Trainee Readiness and Motivation

Strategies for Creating a Motivated Training Environment:
 Use positive reinforcement.  Eliminate threats and punishment.  Be flexible.  Have participants set personal goals.  Design interesting instruction.  Break down physical and psychological obstacles to learning.

Figure 74 7

Principles of Learning

Principles of Learning
Focus on learning and transfer
Goal setting - Whats the value? Meaningfulness of presentation Behavioral modeling Recognition of individual learning differences

Principles of Learning (cont d)

Focus on method and process
Active practice and repetition Whole versus-part learning versusMassed-vsMassed-vs-distributed learning Feedback and reinforcement

Figure 75 7

A Typical Learning Curve

Feedback and Reinforcement

Behavior Modification
 The technique that operates on the principle that behavior that is rewarded, or positively reinforced, is repeated more frequently, whereas behavior that is penalized or unrewarded will decrease in frequency.

Characteristics of Successful Instructors

Knowledge of the subject Adaptability Sincerity Sense of humor Interest Clear instructions Individual assistance Enthusiasm

Phase 3: Implementing the Training Program

Choosing the instructional method
Nature of training Type of trainees Organizational extent of training Importance of training outcomes

Training Methods for Nonmanagerial Employees

On-the-Job Training (OJT) Apprenticeship Training Cooperative Training, Internships, and Governmental Training Classroom Instruction Programmed Instruction Audiovisual Methods Computer-based Training and E-Learning Simulation Method

Training Methods for Nonmanagerial Employees (cont d)

On-the-job training (OJT)
 Method by which employees are given hands-on experience with instructions from their supervisor or other trainer.

Drawbacks
 The lack of a well-structured training environment  Poor training skills of managers  The absence of well-defined job performance criteria

On-the-Job Training
Overcoming OJT training problems
1. Develop realistic goals and/or measures for each OJT area. 2. Plan a specific training schedule for each trainee, including set periods for evaluation and feedback. 3. Help managers establish a nonthreatening atmosphere conducive to learning. 4. Conduct periodic evaluations, after training is completed, to prevent regression.

Highlights in HRM 3
The PROPER Way to Do On-the-Job Training

Source: Scott Snell, Cornell University.

Training Methods for Nonmanagerial Employees (cont d)

Apprenticeship training
 A system of training in which a worker entering the skilled trades is given thorough instruction and experience, both on and off the job, in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work.

Cooperative Training
 A training program that combines practical on-the-job experience with formal educational classes.

Training Methods for Nonmanagerial Employees (cont d)

Internship Programs
 Are jointly sponsored by colleges, universities, and other organizations that offer students the opportunity to gain real-life experience while allowing them to find out how they will perform in work organizations.

Classroom Instruction
 Enables the maximum number of trainees to be handled by the minimum number of instructors.  Blended learninglectures and demonstrations are combined with films, DVDs, and videotapes or computer instruction.

Highlights in HRM 5
Making the Most of Internships
How to Increase the Value of Interns To increase the internal value of your internship programs, take the following steps: 1. Assign the intern to projects that are accomplishable and provide training as required. 2. Involve the intern in the project-planning process. 3. Appoint a mentor or supervisor to guide the intern. 4. Invite project suggestions from other staff members. 5. Ask interns to keep a journal of their work activities. 6. Rotate interns throughout the organization. 7. Explain the rationale behind work assignments. 8. Hold interns accountable for projects and deadlines. 9. Treat interns as part of the organizational staff and invite them to staff meetings. 10. Establish a process for considering interns for permanent hire.
Source: Condensed from John Byrd and Rob Poole, Highly Motivated Employees at No Cost? Its Not an Impossible Dream, Nonprofit World 19, no. 6 (November/December 2001): 31232. Reprinted by permission of Nonprofit World, http://www.snpo.org, telephone: 734-451-3582

Figure 76 7

Delivery Method of Training

Source: Holly Dolezalek, 2004 Industry Report, Training (October 2004): 32.

Training Methods for Nonmanagerial Employees (cont d)

Programmed Instruction
 Referred to as self-directed learninginvolves the use of books, manuals, or computers to break down subject matter content into highly organized, logical sequences that demand continuous response on the part of the trainee.

Audiovisual Methods
 Technologies, such as CDs and DVDs, are used to teach skills and procedures by illustrating the steps in a procedure or interpersonal relations.

Training Methods for Nonmanagerial Employees (cont d)

E-Learning
 Learning that takes place via electronic media such web and computer-based training (CBT)  Allows the firm to bring the training to employees  Allows employees to customize their own learning in their own time and space  Provides continuously updated training materials.

E-Learning Advantages
Learning is self-paced. The training comes to the employee. The training is interactive. Employees do not have to wait for a scheduled training session. The training can focus on specific needs as revealed by built-in tests. Trainees can be referred to online help or written material.

E-Learning Advantages (cont d)

It is easier to change a web site than to retype, photocopy, and distribute new classroomtraining materials. Record keeping is facilitated. The training can be cost-effective if used for both large and small numbers of employees.

Highlights in HRM 6

Source: Holly Dolezalek, 2004 Industry Report, Training (October 2004): 34.

Training Methods for Nonmanagerial Employees (cont d)

Simulation
 The simulation method emphasizes realism in equipment and its operation at minimum cost and maximum safety.  Used when it is either impractical or unwise to train employees on the actual equipment used on the job.

Training Methods for Management Development

On-the-Job Experiences Seminars and Conferences Case Studies Management Games Role Playing Behavior Modeling

On-the-Job Experiences
Coaching Understudy Assignment Job Rotation Lateral Transfer Special Projects Action Learning Staff Meetings Planned Career Progressions

Figure 77 7

The Leadership Grid

Source: Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCanse, Leadership DilemmasGrid Solutions (Houston: Gulf Publishing, 1991), 29. (First published as The Managerial Grid Figure by Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton.) Courtesy of Grid International, Austin, TX. All rights reserved. .

Case Studies
The use of case studies is most appropriate when:
1. Analytic, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills are most important. 2. The KSAs are complex and participants need time to master them. 3. Active participation is desired. 4. The process of learning (questioning, interpreting, and so on) is as important as the content. 5. Team problem solving and interaction are possible.

Figure 78 7

Case Studies

WHEN USING CASE STUDIES . . .

Be clear about learning objectives, and list possible ways to achieve the objectives. Decide which objectives would be best served by the case method. Identify available cases that might work, or consider writing your own. Set up the activityincluding the case material, the room, and the schedule. Follow the principles of effective group dynamics. Provide a chance for all learners to take part and try to keep the groups small. Stop for process checks and be ready to intervene if group dynamics get out of hand. Allow for different learning styles. Clarify the trainers role. Bridge the gap between theory and practice.

Source: Adapted from Albert A. Einsiedel, Jr., Case Studies: Indispensable Tools for Trainers, Training and Development (August 1995): 5053.

Role Playing
Successful role play requires that instructors:
 Ensure that group members are comfortable with each other.  Select and prepare the role players by introducing a specific situation.  To help participants prepare, ask them to describe potential characters.  Realize that volunteers make better role players.

Role Playing (cont d)

Successful role play requires that instructors:
 Prepare the observers by giving them specific tasks (such as evaluation or feedback).  Guide the role-play enactment through its bumps (because it is not scripted).  Keep it short.  Discuss the enactment and prepare bulleted points of what was learned.

Behavior Modeling
Behavior Modeling
 An approach that demonstrates desired behavior and gives trainees the chance to practice and role-play those behaviors and receive feedback.  Involves four basic components:
   

Learning points Model Practice and role play Feedback and reinforcement

Phase 4: Evaluating the Training Program

Measuring program effectiveness
Criterion 1: Trainee reactions Criterion 2: Extent of learning Criterion 3: Learning transfer to job Criterion 4: Results assessment

Figure 79 7

Criteria for Evaluating Training

Criterion 1: Reactions
Participant Reactions.
 The simplest and most common approach to training evaluation is assessing trainees.  Potential questions might include the following:
What were your learning goals for this program? Did you achieve them? Did you like this program? Would you recommend it to others who have similar learning goals? What suggestions do you have for improving the program? Should the organization continue to offer it?

Criterion 2: Learning
Checking to see whether they actually learned anything.
 Testing knowledge and skills before beginning a training program gives a baseline standard on trainees that can be measured again after training to determine improvement.  However, in addition to testing trainees, test employees who did not attend the training to estimate the differential effect of the training.

Criterion 3: Behavior
Transfer of Training
 Effective application of principles learned to what is required on the job.

Maximizing the Transfer of Training

1. 2. 3. 4. Feature identical elements Focus on general principles Establish a climate for transfer. Give employees transfer strategies

Criterion 4: Results or Return on Investment (ROI)

Utility of Training Programs.
 Calculating the benefits derived from training:
How much did quality improve because of the training program? How much has it contributed to profits? What reduction in turnover and wasted materials did the company get after training? How much has productivity increased and by how much have costs been reduced?

Criterion 4: Results or Return on Investment (ROI)

Return on Investment
 Viewing training in terms of the extent to which it provides knowledge and skills that create a competitive advantage and a culture that is ready for continuous change.  ROI = Results/Training Costs
If the ROI ratio is >1, the benefits of the training exceed the cost of the program  If the ROI ratio is <1, the costs of the training exceed the benefits.


Highlights in HRM 7

Source: Richard J. Wagner and Robert J. Weigand, Can the Value of Training Be Measured? A Simplified Approach to Evaluating Training, The Health Care Manager 23, no.1 (JanuaryMarch 2004): 7178.

Criterion 4: Results (cont d)

Benchmarking
 The process of measuring ones own services and practices against the recognized leaders in order to identify areas for improvement. 1. Training activity: How much training is occurring? 2. Training results: Do training and development achieve their goals? 3. Training efficiency: Are resources utilized in the pursuit of this mission?

Criterion 4: Results (cont d)

Demings Benchmarking Model
1. Plan: conduct a self-audit to identify areas for benchmarking. 2. Do: collect data about activities. 3. Check: Analyze data. 4. Act: Establish goals, implement changes, monitor progress, and redefine benchmarks.

Highlights in HRM 8

Special Training and Development Topics

OrganizationOrganization-wide training programs
Orientation training Basic skills training Team and cross-training crossDiversity training

Special Topics in Training and Development (cont d)

Orientation
 A formal process of familiarizing new employees with the organization, their jobs, and their work units.  Benefits:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Lower turnover Increased productivity Improved employee morale Lower recruiting and training costs Facilitation of learning Reduction of the new employees anxiety

Highlights in HRM 9

Special Topics in Training and Development (cont d)

Basic Skills Training
 Basic skills have become essential occupational qualifications, having profound implications for product quality, customer service, internal efficiency, and workplace and environmental safety.

Typical basic skills:

 Reading, writing, computing, speaking, listening, problem solving, managing oneself, knowing how to learn, working as part of a team, leading others.

Special Topics in Training and Development (cont d)

To implement a successful program in basic and remedial skills:
1. Explain to employees why and how the training will help them in their jobs. 2. Relate the training to the employees goals. 3. Respect and consider participant experiences, and use these as a resource. 4. Use a task-centered or problem-centered approach so that participants learn by doing. 5. Give feedback on progress toward meeting learning objectives.

Special Topics in Training and Development (cont d)

Team Training Issues
1. Team building is a difficult and comprehensive process. 2. Team development is not always a linear sequence of forming, storming, norming, and performing. 3. Additional training is required to assimilate new members. 4. Behavioral and process skills need to be acquired through participative exercises.

Figure 710 7

Team Training Skills

Source: George Bohlander and Kathy McCarthy, How to Get the Most from Team Training, National Productivity Review (Autumn 1996): 2535.

Special Topics in Training and Development (cont d)

Cross-Training
 The process of training employees to do multiple jobs within an organization
Gives firms flexible capacity.  Cuts turnover  Increase productivity  Pares down labor costs  Lays the foundation for careers rather than dead-end jobs.


Highlights in HRM 10
Characteristics of Effective Diversity Training Programs
Steering committee represents all levels of the organization and a mix of races, ages, and gender. Workshops include the following: Top executives demonstrate their commitment by early participation. Each participant is given a workbook with support materials. Participants are made aware of key topics and company policies. Participants are asked to describe specific steps they would take to support diversity. Participants create a list of diversity ground rules or behavioral norms. Managers discuss and revise rules for their areas. Participants link diversity training to other HR initiatives such as recruitment and selection, career management, and compensation. Managers are accountable for achieving goals of diversity training.

Special Topics in Training and Development (cont d)

To avoid the pitfalls of substandard diversity training, managers will want to do the following:
 Forge a strategic link.  Check out consultant qualifications.  Dont settle for off the shelf programs.  Choose training methods carefully.  Document individual and organizational benefits.

Key Terms
apprenticeship training behavior modeling behavior modification benchmarking competency assessment cooperative training cross-training e-learning instructional objectives internship programs on-the-job training (OJT) organization analysis orientation person analysis task analysis transfer of training