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The Parcel Method

In this simple approach we shall consider the vertical motions of an individual parcel of air with the simplified assumptions
1. No compensating motions occur in the environment as the parcel moves 2. The parcel does not mix with its environment and so retains its identity

Neither of these two assumptions is completely justifiable

The stability criteria in this simple approach, can be obtained without the formal use of mathematics. Consider an atmospheric in hydrostatic equilibrium with a certain lapse rate of virtual temperature, . Imagine a parcel of air which initially has the same temperature, pressure and density as its surroundings. There will be no net vertical force on this parcel since it is in hydrostatic equilibrium. Such an element of air is floating. Now suppose the is given a small upward displacement by some external agency. If the parcel remains unsaturated it will expand and cool at dry adiabatic rate d = g/Cp

i.

If the environment lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate is < d the parcel will be at lower virtual temperature than its new surroundings. Since the pressure n the parcel very quickly becomes equal to the pressure in the environment, it follows that the parcel will be more dense than its surroundings and will not be buoyant, but will sink back to the original level. These conditions represents the stable case. In fact in the stable case, the displaced parcel continues to oscillate about its original position until viscosity robs the oscillation of its energy. While sinking, the parcel will accelerate downward because of the part gravity which is not exactly cancelled by the vertical gradient of pressure.

As it sinks it will warm at the rate d > and will find itself warmer and lighter than its new environment. Thus there will be net upward force which will ultimately reverse its motion and send it upward. This type of upward and downward motions will form the oscillations under the stable case. ii.In this case d < , a parcel displaced upward will find itself with a temperature greater than that of the new environment. Consequently it will be lighter than the surroundings and will be subject to a net upward force. In this case the parcel will continue to move upward and will not return to its original location. Similarly, a parcel displaced downloads under the unstable case will continue to move down.

iii. Finally, when d = , a parcel displaced upward or downward will have the same temperature and density as its surroundings. Consequently, it will be subjected to no net force in either direction i.e. it will attain neutral equilibrium.

In summary the stability criteria for unsaturated parcel displacements are, ; stable d> ; neutral d= ; unstable d< Thus the dry adiabatic lapse rate is dividing line between mechanical stability and instability for dry air. The homogenous atmosphere, which has a lapse rate for greater than d, is highly unstable and is found only in shallow layers near the ground where viscous and turbulent effects are dominant.

When the parcel of air is saturated, its lapse rate is not dry adiabatic d but moist adiabatic s. The same stability criteria apply in the saturated case except that one must compare the environmental lapse rate to the moist adiabatic value instead of the dry adiabatic value. Since the moist adiabatic lapse rate is smaller, it is easier to obtain instability for saturated air than for unsaturated air

Conditional Instability
Suppose the environment lapse rate lies between the moist and dry adiabatic values. An initially unsaturated parcel forced it ascend will be stable since d > . But if the impulse forcing the air upward lasts long enough the parcel will reach the lifting condensation level and become saturated. Then the parcel lapse rate lapse rate immediately becomes less than that of the environment and instability results, known as conditional instability. In this case when the environmental lapse rate lies between d and s, a parcel is stable w.r.t. saturated lifting process.

In the unsaturated case till d > it is stable. With saturation one has to consider s which is less than d and hence s < and hence it becomes unstable. The adjacent tephigram may be used to explain conditional instability. A parcel forced to ascend dry adiabatically from 1000mb at first is colder than environment and is subject to negative or downward buoyancy Lifting condensation level (saturation occurs) R Level of free convection Shaded Area Latent instability

It reaches the LCL at 900mb and ascends moist adiabatically thereafter. The parcel curve intersects the environ curve at 800 mb, thus defining an area which lies completely to the left of the sounding curve. This is called the negative area since it is proportional to the energy which must be supplied to the parcel in order to lift it this high. Above 800mb the parcel is warmer than the sounding and is subject to positive or upward buoyancy. From 800 to 500mb there is positive area to the right of the sounding. This signifies positive area to the right of the sounding. This signifies positive area since it is proportional to the energy which becomes available to the parcel from the environ.

In summary five states can be recognize w.r.t. parcel displacement in an atmosphere of lapse . The atmosphere is said to be
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Absolutely stable if Saturated neutral if Conditional unstable if Dry neutral if Absolutely unstable if < =
s s s

< <

= >

d d

The conditions that must e fulfilled before the element may become unstable w.r.t. its surrounding are
1. A sufficient amount of moisture for the moving parcel to become saturated soon. 2. A mechanically produced lifting of sufficient strength to overcome the stability forces at the lower levels and to carry upwards.

Thermodynamic Diagrams
The primary function of a thermodynamic diagram is to provide a graphical display of the lines representing the major kinds of process to which air may be subjected, namely isobaric, isothermal, dry adiabatic and pseudo adiabatic. The characteristic properties of the thermodynamic diagram are:
i. Since energy changes are of primary importance, the first desirable characteristic of such a diagram is that the area enclosed by the lines representing any cyclic process be proportional to the change in energy or the work done during the process. This is such an important property that the designation thermodynamic diagram is often reserve for those in which the area is proportional to energy or work.

ii. The second desired characteristic is that as many as possible of the fundamental lines be straight. The more a diagram satisfies this criterion the easier it will be to use. iii. The angle between the isotherms and the dry adiabats shall be as large as possible. When sounding of the upper atmosphere are plotted.

For an element of specific work we write dw = pd And hence in order to satisfy the first criterion one should have p and coordinate. as

However, the angle between the isotherms and adiabats of an , -p diagram is quit small and hence does not satisfy the third criterion. We must seek a means of setting up other suitable diagrams in which the coordinates are too functions of thermodynamic variables, subject to the restriction that the area enclosed by any cycle in the new diagram shall be equal to area enclosed by the same cycle on a , -p diagram. Such a diagram is called an equal area transformation of the , -p diagram. We may then examine these new diagrams to see how well they satisfy the other two criteria.

Consider two variables A and B. Let each be a function of one or more thermodynamic variables. Since a thermodynamic variable is determined by the sate of a system it suffices to know and p for a parcel in order to determine A and B.

Thus each point on an , -p diagram corresponds to a point on an A, B diagram and any closed cycle on one is a closed cycle (perhaps of different shape) on the other. We shall require that the area enclosed on one diagram be equal to the area enclosed on the other. This ensures that an A, B plot will be a thermodynamic diagram. Thus,

 p d ! A dB
for any given cyclic process.

Thus p d  AdB ! 0

(1)

For the above integral to be zero, the integrand must be an exact differential-for example pd + AdB = ds where S = f( , B) (2)

From calculus,
xS xS dS , B ! E dE  dB xB E xE B (3)

Comparing (2) and (3), sufficient conditions for an equal area transformation are: xS xS p ! and A ! E B xB xE Differentiating first w.r.t. B and the second w.r.t. ,
xp xB E i.e.,
2 x 2S xA x S ! xE xB and xE ! xE xB B

xA xp ! xE B xB E

(4) is the sufficient condition for the area to be equal.

The Tephigram This diagram may be developed by letting B=T as for the emagram. Thus A = R ln +F(T) But this time instead of substituting from the equation of state let us introduce potential temp from Poissons eqn:

T U

p RT ! ! 1000 E 1000

Taking logarithms ln T ln = k (ln T+ln R ln 1000 ln ) or, ln =(1/k) (ln -ln T) + ln T + ln R ln 1000 = Cp ln +G(T) (1-Cp) ln T +ln R ln 1000

Or, R ln

where G(T)

A = Cp ln + F(T) +G(T)

Let us choose the arbitrary function F(T) = -G(T) So the coordinate become A = Cp ln B=T Since Cp ln is equal to the entropy, apart from an additive constant, Sir Napier show, who introduced diagram, called it the T- diagram or tephigram for short. The equation of the isobars on the tephigram may be obtained by taking the logarithm of Poissions equation. For constant values of p, ln = ln T +Const

Since one coordinate of its diagram is ln but the other is a linear scale of T, the isobars are logarithmic curves which decrease in slope with increasing temp. In rather restricted range of meteorological conditions the isobars have only gentle curvature and are nearly straight. It is possible to rotate the diagram clockwise so that the isobars are essentially horizontal with pressure decreasing upward as it does in the atmosphere. However this is not absolutely necessary. The pseudoadiabats are appreciably curved, but the saturation mixing ratio lines are nearly straight on a tephigram.

But the very nature of the diagram, the angle between isotherms and adiabats is exactly 90o. This angle is double that of emagram and hence is the greatest advantage of the tephigram. Thus in summary, the tephigram has (1) Area energy

(2) 4 sets of lines exactly straight or nearly straight and only 1 set quit curved. (3) Isotherm-adiabat angle large. This diagram is used indely. Tgram continued = T(1000/p)(R/Cp) Taking natural logarithm and then differentiating, ln = ln T + (R/Cp) (ln 1000 - ln p)
Cp d (ln )=Cp d(ln T) R d (ln p)=Cp (dT / T)R (dp / p)=Cp (dT/T)( /T) dp

Multiplying with T, Cp T d (ln ) = Cp dT dp = dH From law of thermodynamics H = Cp dT dp p d(lnp)

=Cp T d(ln T) -

=Cp T d(ln T) - RT d(lnp) =Cp T d(ln ) For finite process,

dH ! C p T d ln U
2 1

This relation suggests co-ordinates of x = Cp ln and y = T as in Tephi diagram so as to have are representation. Going in to the concept of entropy, ( H / T) =Cp d(ln ) = Cp d(lnT) R d(lnp) The r.h.s is an exact differential.

For an ideal gas d So the entropy

= H/T = Cp lnT R lnp +Constant

= Cp ln +Constant increases or decrease as heat is absorbed or removed. is constant for dry adiabatic process. Also a process where is constant is called the isentropic process.

The constant of integration may be determined for any arbitary reference level. Normally, = c at p = 1022 mb and T =200oK The relation = Cp ln + Constant shows that a diagram with coordinates T, Cp ln has in effect a linear entropy scale. Also

dH !

T dJ
1

! T 2  J1 J

Where T is constructed in such a way that the areas A and B are equal.

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