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2 Unguided media

twireless tsignals are broadcasted through air

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contd

tRadio Frequency Allocation

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t Propagation of radio waves

Types of propagation

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contd

t Type of propagation
Surface Propagation
q

Radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere

TropospherePropagation
q

can work two ways(x signal can be directed in a straight line from antenna to antenna. y It can be broadcast at an angle into the upper layers of troposphere where it is reflected back down to the earths surface
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contd

IonospherePropagation
q

High-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere where they are reflected back to earth

Line-of-Sight Propagation
q

Very high frequency signals are transmitted in straight lives directly from antenna to antenna

Space Propagation
q

Utilizes satellite relays in place of atmospheric refraction

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contd

sPropagation of Specific Signals

The type of propagation used in radio transmission depends on the frequency(speed) of the signal

t VLF(Very Low Frequency)

is propagated as surface waves, usually through air but sometimes through seawater is used mostly for long-range radio navigation and for submarine communication

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contd t LF(Low Frequency)

is also propagated as surface waves is used for long-range radio navigation and for radio beacons or navigation locators

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contd t MF(Middle Frequency)

is propagated in the troposphere is absorbed by the ionosphere uses for MF transmissions include AM radio, maritime radio, radio direction finding(RDF), and emergency frequencies

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contd t HF(High-Frequency)
uses ionospheric propagation uses of for HF signals include amateur radio(ham radio), CB(Citizens band) radio, international broadcasting, military communication, long-distance aircraft and ship communication, telephone, telegraph, and facsimile

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contd t VHF(Most Very High Frequency)

use line-of-sight propagation uses for VHF include VHF television, FM radio, aircraft AM radio, and aircraft navigational aid

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contd t UHF(Ultrahigh Frequency)

always uses line-of-sight propagation. Uses for UHF include UHF television, mobile telephone, cellular radio, paging , and micro wave links

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contd t SHF(SuperHigh Frequency) ~ are transmitted using mostly line-of-sight and some space propagation. ~ uses for SHF include terrestrial and satellite microwave, and radar communication

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contd t EHF(Extremely High Frequency)

use space propagation uses for EHF are radar, Satellite, and experimental communication

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contd t Terrestrial microwaves

require line-of-sight transmission and reception equipment. The distance coverable by a line-of-sight signal depends on a large extent on the height of the antenna : the taller the antenna, the longer the sight distance

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contd t Repeaters
To increase the distance served by terrestrial microwave, a system of repeaters can be installed with each antenna.

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contd t Antennas
two types of antenna

x Parabolic dish
is based on the geometry of a parabola

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contd y Horn antenna

looks like a gigantic scoop

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contd t Satellite Communication

is much like line of sight microwave transmission in which one of the station is a satellite orbiting the earth

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contd t Geosynchronous satellites

@ the view from the North Pole

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contd t Frequency bands for satellite communication

Band Downlink Uplink

C Ku Ka

03.7 - 04.2 GHz ` 11.7 - 12.2 GHz 17.7 - 21.0 GHz

05.925 - 06.425 GHz 14.000 - 14.500 GHz 27.500 - 31.000 GHz

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contd

t Cellular telephony
is designed to provide stable communications connections between two moving device or between one mobile unit and one stationary(land) unit.

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t Cellular System

contd

The typical radius of a cell is 1 ~ 12 miles : Cell size is not fixed and can be increased or decreased depending on the population of the area. Each cell office is controlled by MTSO.

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contd t Cellular Bands

Traditional cellular transmission is Analog, now mostly Digital. The FCC has assigned two bands for cellular use.

Initiating from mobile phones

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Initiating from land phones

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contd
t Transmitting
The caller enter a code of 7 or 10 digits(phone number) Press the send button The mobile phone then scans the band, seeking a setup channel with a strong signal Sends the data(phone number) to the closest cell office Cell office relays the data to the MTSO MTSO sends data on to the telephone central office

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contd
t Receiving

* When a land phone places a call to a mobile phone

Telephone central office sends the number to the MTSO MTSO searches for the location of the mobile phone Mobile phone is found, the MTSO transmits a ringing signal When the mobile phone is answered, assigns a voice channel to the call, allowing voice communication to begin

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contd
t Handoff
During a conversation, the mobile phone moves from one cell to another Signal may become weak MTSO monitors the level of the signal every few seconds MTSO seeks a new cell that can accommodate the communication better Handoffs are performed so smoothly that most of the time they are not observed by the users

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contd t Digital
Analog cellular service Analog circuit switching cellular(ACSC) Require modem with max speed of 9600 to 19200 bps Since 1993, cellular digita packet data(CDPD)

t Integration with Satellites and PCs

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7.3 Performance

uFive factors to evaluate the suitability of a particular medium

Cost : cost of the material + installation Speed Attenuation EMI(Electromagnetic Interference) Security
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Performance(contd) t Transmission media performance

Medium
UTP STP Coax Optical fiber Radio Microwave Satellite Cellular

Cost
Low Moderate Moderate High Moderate High High High

Speed
1 - 100 Mbps 1 - 150 Mbps 1 Mbps - 1 Gbps 10 Mbps - 2 Gbps 1 - 10 Mbps 1 Mbps - 10 Gbps 1 Mbps - 10 Gbps 9.6 - 19.2 Kbps

Attenuation
High High Moderate Low Low-high Variable Variable Low

EMI
High Moderate Moderate Low High High High Moderate

Security
Low Low Low High Low Moderate Moderate Low

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7.3 Transmission Impairment t Transmission media are not perfect because of impairment in the signal sent through the medium
Signal at the beginning and end of the medium are not same

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Transmission Impairment t Attenuation

means loss of energy When signal travels trough a medium, it losses some of it energy So, to compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal

t Decibel (dB)
dB = 10 log10 (p2/p1)

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Transmission Impairment t p2 = (1/2) p1 t Signal powers are increased 10 times by AMP

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Transmission Impairment

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Transmission Impairment t Distortion

Means that signal changes its from or shape

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Transmission Impairment t Noise - Noise types

thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk and impulse noise Thermal noise : random motion of electrons Induced noise : from sources such as motors, appliances Crosstalk : the effect of one wire on the other Impulse noise : a spike that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on.
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Transmission Impairment t noise

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7.4 Performance t Throughput

is the measurement of how fast data can pass through a point

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Performance

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7.5 Wavelength

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7.6 Shannon Capacity t A formula to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a channel
C = B log 2 (1 + S/N)
C : Shannon capacity

B - bandwidth of the channel S/N signal to noise ratio

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7.6 Shannon Capacity t Example 7.4 (extremely noise channel) The noise is so strong that signal is faint
C = B log2 (1 + S/N) = B log 2 (1 + 0) = B log 2 (1) = B x 0 = 0

t Example 7.5 (theoretical highest bit rate of a regular

telephone line) bandwidth : 3000 hz
C = B: log2 (1 + S/N) = 3000 log 2 (1 + 1362) = 3000 log 2 (3163) S/N 3162 (35 dB) = 3000 x 11.62 = 34,860 bps
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7.7 Media Comparison

uFive factors to evaluate the suitability of a particular medium

Cost : cost of the material + installation Speed Attenuation EMI(Electromagnetic Interference) Security
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Performance(contd) t Transmission media performance

Medium
UTP STP Coax Optical fiber Radio Microwave Satellite Cellular

Cost
Low Moderate Moderate High Moderate High High High

Speed
1 - 100 Mbps 1 - 150 Mbps 1 Mbps - 1 Gbps 10 Mbps - 2 Gbps 1 - 10 Mbps 1 Mbps - 10 Gbps 1 Mbps - 10 Gbps 9.6 - 19.2 Kbps

Attenuation
High High Moderate Low Low-high Variable Variable Low

EMI
High Moderate Moderate Low High High High Moderate

Security
Low Low Low High Low Moderate Moderate Low

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