Welding Inspection

Presenter Steve Cave Senior P & EW Instructor

WELDING PRESENTATION By Steve Cave

The Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) plays an important role during any welded construction activities ensuring the required specifications and standards are followed. Due to the numerous materials and processes associated with metal joining (welding) THIS PRESENTATION SHALL SHOW ONLY THE BASIC WELDING PROCESSES AND EXAMINATION METHODS (NDE). National and International Codes and Specifications along with measuring devices are the Inspector s tools. Hopefully the following presentation shall give an insight into basic welding inspection.

How To Prevent Weld Failure

Weld Failures
Today welding is the most common method used for joining steel fabrications largely because of the speed at which joints can be made and the reliability of these joints in service. However because most welding operations are now relatively simple to perform it is all too easy to forget the complexity of the chemical and metallurgical actions that are taking place when the weld is being deposited. Therefore not surprisingly welds occasionally fail.

Overload
Before applying the various design formulas, the problem itself must be analyzed and clearly stated. This is not always obvious, and trying to solve the wrong problem can quickly lead to insufficient design stresses. When a load is placed on a member, stress and strain result. Stress is the internal resistance to the applied force. Strain is the amount of "give or deformation caused by the stress, such as deflection in bending, elongation in tension, contraction in compression, and angular twist in torsion.

Overload
For example of this is a lifting lug on a pressure vessel. If the vessel is lifted by a spreader beam the loading condition on the lug consists of a simple vertical force putting the attachment welds either in tension or shear. However if the vessel is lifted with a rope sling the loading condition becomes more complex because there is now a horizontal component of the force to consider as well a the vertical one, which effectively increases the loading on the welds.

Joint Design
A welded joint should be designed such that the welder can easily manipulate the electrode to ensure good fusion, particularly in the root of the joint. The profile of each run should be roughly as wide as it is deep; wide shallow weld beads and particularly deep narrow beads are both ideal candidates for hot cracking.

Hot Cracking
This type of cracking occurs when the weld is starting to solidify, in the pasty state, as it posses very little strength and therefore any residual loading is likely to cause it to break before it has fully solidified. The problem can be compounded by impurities that are forced out of the solidifying weld, becoming trapped in the center of the weld during final solidification. Hot cracking can occur where their is a high degree of restraint in the structure of the fabrication or where the structure moves slightly as the weld solidifies.

Hot Cracking
A good example of this type of failure is on the weld used to secure the small plug in the mandrill hole of a spun dished head on a pressure vessel, a weld that many people do not take seriously because of its size. As the weld cools it contracts causing the plug to move , if the weld at the other side of the plug is still solidifying it could easily fail. This is because of the very high contraction stresses generated by the plug as the weld starts to solidify.

Bad Welding Methods

It is very important when carrying out any welding to ensure that it is done correctly. Consideration has to be given to all aspects of the process and also the environment. Often welding has to be carried out under site conditions, the welding is often carried out in situation so that small general purpose electrodes are used resulting in low weld heat input which when combined with no preheat gives very rapid heat dissipation Which can create a hard micro structure particularly in the location of the heat affected zone.

Bad Welding Methods

This along with high levels of residual stress will create the ideal condition for hydrogen induced cracking, which although normally associated with high strength steels can occur in low carbon steels if the conditions are right. The resulting crack may not occur immediately the weld cools down but some time afterward, therefore if this type of failure is expected non destructive examination should be delayed by at least 48 hours after welding.

Metallurgical failure
Materials that are to be welded have to tolerate severe thermal transients created by the welding process without suffering deterioration of their mechanical properties or adverse phase changes. The metallurgical composition or temper conditions of certain types of metal may make them unsuitable to weld or may require special controls to be imposed during the welding operation. For example some steels that are easy to machine may contain high levels of sulphur that may result in cracking of any attaching weld. Therefore this type of material should not be used on load bearing fabricated items such as the eye bolts that are often found holding down man way covers on pressure vessels.

Weld Defects
They can usually be attributed to the welders inability to set up and manipulate the welding equipment; although bad joint design and faulty welding equipment can also be responsible. The most significant defects are cracks and those that resemble cracks such as lack of fusion, cold overlap etc. This is because of the risk that the crack may become unstable and propagate when loaded causing a dramatic failure often by brittle fracture

Weld Defects
Porosity seldom causes weld failure in multi-run welds however it is a sign that something has gone wrong with welding operation and can often be caused by other defects that may not have been detected such as lack of side wall fusion. Weld profile can also cause failure, if the weld size is too small because the joint is underfilled with weld then its load carrying capability will be reduced, if the joint contains excessive weld metal this can create a notch effect which can lead to failure by fatigue if the loading condition fluctuates.

Weld Defects
Bad fit up excessive root penetration on single sided welds can create defects in the root of the weld such as wormholes and even cracking. Distortion of welded joints can cause failure by buckling if the welded member is subjected to compressive loads.

Conclusion
To minimize these problems the following points should be considered
1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . Design of the weld based on the loading condition(s) the joint will carry Accessibility to enable ease of welding Control of distortion Careful consideration of the welding environment Matching welding process with materials A factor of safety applied to the design stress of the weld which should be based on the consequence of weld failure and the level of non destructive testing that is to be carried out.

Welding Inspection
Duties of a Welding Inspector

Duties Prior to Welding

    

Obtain all relevant documentation Relevant specifications. Relevant procedures. Copies of welders test test certificates. Copies of drawings.

Duties Prior to Welding

    

Obtain all relevant documentation Ensure welder qualification. Correct material type condition etc. Correct equipment with certificates. Correct consumables type condition, size. Correct pre heat.

Duties Prior to Welding

      

Assess / measure fit up Root face. Bevel angle. Root gap. Alignment. Joint cleanliness. Ensure no undue stress is applied to the joint.

Duties During welding

    

Check amperage, voltage, polarity. Ensure correct welding technique. Ensure correct welding direction. Check welding time. Ensure adequate cleaning between passes. Correct interpass temperature.

Duties During welding

 

Check root internally. Check all back gouged welds.

Duties After welding

    

Ensure welds are post cleaned. Visual inspection of welds for defects. Visually check for arc strikes. Check weld contour and weld width. Ensure joint is covered to retard cooling rate. Ensure monitor post weld heat treatment.

Duties After welding

 

Report on weld. Check NDT reports where needed.

Welding Processes

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Tungsten Arc Welding

Submerged Arc Welding

Problems Associated With Incorrect Weld Joint Fit Up

Root Problems
Gap size too large:
a) excess penetration b) burnthrough

c) shrinkage grooves

d) gas entrapment

Root Problems
Gap size too small:
1) incomplete penetration

2) incomplete root fusion

3) incomplete side wall fusion

4) slag inclusions

5) root concavity

Root Problems
Root face too large:

a) incomplete root penetration

b) incomplete root fusion

Root Problems
Root face too small:
1) excessive penetration 2) burnthrough

3) root concavity

4) root undercut

Included Angle Too large

a) excess penetration

b) incomplete filled groove

Fillet Welds
Gap size too large:

1) reduced root penetration

2) slag inclusions

3) gas inclusions 4) reduced vertical leg length size 5) cracking

Included Angle Too Small

1) incomplete root penetration 2) incomplete interun fusion

3) incomplete root fusion

4) incomplete sidewall fusion

5) excessive cap

6) poor toe blend

7) slag inclusions

Visual Inspection of Welds

Butt Weld Size

a) excess weld metal height

b) root penetration

c) weld width

d) root bead width

Fillet welds (size)

Consider:

a) z minimum (and maximum) leg length size

b) a minimum design throat thickness

Shape (Butt Welds)

Consider:
Ideally, (a) is the most desirable but very often it may be difficult to achieve. Because of this, one should assess the excess weld height in conjunction with the weld profile and perhaps the toe blending.

Shape (Fillet Welds)

Consider:

In normal practice, (a) is the most desirable but, again, in many instances it is difficult to achieve. Acceptance levels, therefore, allow tolerances on weld shape.

Toe Blend (Butt Welds)

For butt welds, consider:
In normal practice, (a) is the most desirable but, again, in many instances it is difficult to achieve. Acceptance levels, therefore, allow tolerances on weld shape. Depending on the service conditions of the product, the toe blend may be of greater importance than the size and shape of the weld. A poor toe blend may reduce service life by a considerable margin if the product is under a cyclic load.

Toe Blend (Fillet Welds)

For fillet welds, consider:

In normal practice, (a) is the most desirable but, again, in many instances it is difficult to achieve. Acceptance levels, therefore, allow tolerances on weld shape.

Root Defects
Incomplete root penetration Failure of weld metal to extend into the root of a joint

Lack of root fusion Lack of union at the root of a joint Excess penetration bead Excess weld metal protruding through the root of a fusion weld made from one side only

Root Defects
Root concavity (suck-back; underwashing - non-standard terms) A shallow groove which may occur in the root of a butt weld, but full fusion is evident Shrinkage groove A shallow groove caused by contraction in the metal along each side of a penetration bead or along the weld centreline Burnthrough (melt through) A localised collapse of the molten pool due to excessive penetration, resulting in a hole in the weld run

Contour Defects

Incompletely filled groove A continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld, running along its length, due to insufficient weld metal. The channel may be along the centre or along one or both edges of the weld

Bulbous Contour

Bulbous contour A non-standard term used to describe poor appearance

Unequal Legs
Unequal legs (non standard term) Variation of leg length on a fillet weld Note: Unequal leg lengths may be specified as part of the design - in which case they are not imperfections

Undercut

Undercut An irregular groove at a toe of a run in the parent metal or in previously deposited weld metal The inspector must determine if the undercut is continuous or intermittent, or sharp or smooth

Overlap

Overlap An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it

Gas Pore
Gas pore A cavity, generally under 1.5mm in diameter, formed by trapped gas during the solidification of molten metal

Porosity A group of gas pores

Crater Pipe

Crater pipe A depression due to shrinkage at the end of a run where the source of heat was removed. Crater pipes may also lead to micro-cracking

Surface Cracks
Crack A linear discontinuity produced by fracture Cracks may be ... a) ... longitudinal, in the weld metal, i.e. centreline

b) ... longitudinal, in the parent metal or heat affected zone

c) ... transverse

d) Crater crack (star cracking)

Arc Strike
Stray flash/arc burn/arc strike (stray arcing) 1. The damage on the parent material resulting from the accidental striking of an arc away from the weld 2. The accidental striking of an arc away from the weld Note that the same term is used for both the action and the result

Weld Width
Weld width and consistency of weld width

For butt welds and fillet welds, consider:

Weld Defects

Lack of Side Wall Fusion

Lack of Inter Run Fusion

Porosity

Slag Inclusions

Incomplete Root Fusion /Penetration

Solidification Cracking

Overlap

Excess Weld Metal

Excess Penetration

Root Concavity

Slag Inclusion

Surface Breaking Porosity

Cracking

Arc Strikes

Crater Pipe

Using Welding Inspection Tools

Weld Profile Gauge

Scale in inches or mm Measuring Fillet Welds

Measuring Cap Reinforcement/ Misalignment

Measuring Bevel Angle

Hi Lo Gage

Measures Hi Lo Pipe Thickness Bevel Angle

Using the tools

Throat Thickness (WPG)

Fillet Weld

Cap Reinforcement (WPG)

Measuring the height of the cap

Bevel Angle (WPG)

Readout Measuring the pipe bevel angle

Misalignment (WPG)
Shown on scale

Misalignment (Hi Lo)

Pipe Misalignment

Non Destructive Testing

Visual Inspection
Visual inspection is the one NDT method used extensively to evaluate the condition or the quality of a weld or component. It is easily carried out, inexpensive and Visual inspection is the one NDT method used extensively to evaluate the condition or the quality of a weld or component. It is easily carried out, inexpensive and usually doesn't require special equipment.

Radiography
X-rays are produced by high voltage x ray machines whereas gamma rays are produced from radioactive isotopes such as Iridium 192 The x-ray or gamma rays are placed close to the material to bc inspected and they pass through the material and are then captured on film This film is then processed and the image is obtained as a series of gray shades between black and white.

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection is a method that can be used to find surface and near surface flaws in ferromagnetic materials such as steel and iron. The technique uses the principle that magnetic lines of force {flux) will be distorted by the presence of a flaw in a manner that will reveal it's presence. the flaw (for example, a crack) is located from the "flux leakage", following the application of fine iron particles, to the area under examination. There are variations in the way the magnetic field is applied. but they are all dependant on the above principle .

Penetrant Testing Inspection

Liquid penetration inspection is a method that is used to reveal surface breaking flaws by bleed out of a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw.

Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic inspection uses sound waves of short wavelength and high frequency to detect flaws or measure material thickness. It is used on aircraft, the power stations generating plant, or welds in pressure vessels at an oil refinery or paper mill.