INTRODUCTION

Electricity is a basic human need. It is to be gene-rated, transmitted, distributed and effectively used to meet energy needs. Government is committed to ensuring that every village in India is to be electrified through

GRAMIN

VIDYUTIKARAN

YOJNA

Every village of this country will be provided with a connecting road, a telephone, safe drinking water and electricity. Power is a critical infrastructure for socio-economic development.

Supply of quality power at reasonable rate will make it affordable to the rural (people) population and make our industries competitive. It is necessary to make all our efforts to improve generation, transmission and distribution of electricity so that every household in the country will have access to it.

The per capita consumption of electricity which is considered the index of development of any country has groomed from 400 units in 1998 to over 600 units in 2005 and presently, it is around 680. The National Electricity Policy envisages 1000 units of per capita availability of electricity by the year 2012 and necessary capacity addition plans need to be accelerated for achieving this goal. Per Capita Consumption: India -----680 units Gujarat -----800 units USA -----9500 units Norway&} ------ 16000 units Sweeden}

Now a days the living standard is decided by energy consumption by the person.

Three phase a.c. system at 50 Hz (60 Hz in USA) is used for generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electrical power (for transmission, HVDC system is also used). Power transformers are necessary between consecutive voltage levels for raising or lowering a.c. voltage at the same frequency. As the transformation of voltages is carried out successively in generating stations, sub-stations, distribution systems and near load points, the total cumulative installed MVA capacity of the power transformers is approx. 6 times the cumulative installed MVA capacity of generators. With introduction of Wind Mills and electricity generation using non-conventional energy resources, this ratio has reduced to 5.5. Therefore, transformers are very important apparatus in the electrical network. Transformer is well known electrical equipment which deserves attention. It is costly and important equipment. Transformers should give reliable service of more than twenty years.

The transformers are designed and built in several sizes from a few kVA to several hundred MVA, from low voltage to extra-high voltages (EHV) and ultra high voltages (UHV) and also for convertors in High Voltage Direct Current Transmission (HVDC). The kVA ratings of power transformers cover a wide range between say 5 kVA to 650 MVA. Very large transformers (250 MVA to 650 MVA) are installed in generating stations. Very small transformers (a few VA) are used in low voltage circuits. The choice of kVA rating of transformers in a particular installation depends upon the kVA load.

As on today, the highest AC voltage in the system is 1500 KV and transformers have been developed to meet the requirements of highest system voltages. The highest rating of the transformer in the world is 2000 MVA, 1500 KV.

Required numbers of identical transformers are connected in parallel to supply the total load. The special purpose transformers differ from the usual power transformers with respect to specifications, design, construction and applications. The special purpose transformers include: Voltage transformers and current transformers Furnace transformers Regulating transformers Converter transformers Rectifier transformers Mining transformers Phase shifting transformers Phase changing transformers (e.g. 3 ph to 1 ph) Traction transformers High frequency transformers Welding transformers High voltage testing transformers Short Circuit testing transformers, etc.

--Large converter transformers are installed in conversion substations of HVDC transmission links. --Dry type transformers are used for auxiliaries in generating stations, industrial applications etc.

Reactors: Reactors are equipment of transformer family. A reactor has a predominantly inductive coil. Reactors are used in the power system network for current limiting and for compensation of reactive power. There are two types of reactors: (1) Series reactors, connected in series for current limiting and (2) Shunt reactors, connected in shunt, for compensation of reactive power. Oil insulated Reactors are similar to transformers in external appearance and have some design features similar to those of power transformers. Air-core dry type reactor looks like a large coil.

REACTORS ARE NECESSARY FOLLOWING APPLICATIONS:

IN

Series Reactors are necessary for limiting short circuit currents, for limiting inrush currents while switching-in, for limiting current surges with fluctuating loads, for smoothing the current waveform, for giving stored energy for satisfactory operation of converters, neutral grounding reactors, etc. Shunt Reactors are necessary for shunt harmonic filters, and for providing reactive power compensation for long EHV AC lines.

1.2. DEFINITION OF TRANSFORMER Transformer is a static electrical equipment which transforms a.c. electrical power from one voltage to another voltage at the same frequency by induction. From this definition, Transformers are static equipment and do not have rotor. They transform electrical power from one circuit to another circuit at the same frequency but (usually) at different voltage. They operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. They operate only with alternating current. They do not function with DC supply.

1.3. PRINCIPLE

OF OPERATION

A transformer has two or more separate winding placed on a common magnetic core. It works on induction principle. The primary winding is supplied with alternating current of supply frequency. Thereby alternating magnetic flux of the same frequency is produced in the magnetic core. The flux linkage of the secondary winding also changes at the same frequency, resulting in induced e.m.f. of the same frequency in the secondary winding by electromagnetic induction.

Thus, the transformer works only on alternating current. The above principle is based on the well known Faradays Law of Electromagnetic induction. EMF (Electro Motive Force) is induced in a close circuit when the flux linkage with the circuit changes. In case of transformers, the change in flux linkage occurs due to the continuously varying alternating flux in the core. Hence, e.m.f. is induced continuously in the secondary.

The direction of induced e.m.f. in the secondary winding opposes the cause (Lenzs Law) and, therefore, alternates at the same frequency. If the secondary winding is without electrical load, the transformer is on no load. The primary takes only a small current for magnetizing the core. If secondary side is loaded with electrical load, the secondary current flows. The primary current increases correspondingly to maintain the same magnetic flux in the core. For two winding transformers, neglecting magnetization currents, V1 / V2= N1 / N2 = k

12 /11 = N1 / N2 =k V1 x. I1 = V2 x I2 = Volt Amperes. I1 x N1 = I2 x N2 = Ampere-Turns k is called Transformation Ratio. Neglecting noload current (excitation current), the total ampereturns of primary winding are equal to the total ampere-turns of the secondary. The transformer does not give higher output. It only gives voltage transformation and current transformation. Volt Amperes remain unchanged.

1.4. CONSTRUCTION AND DESCRIPTION A transformer has the following sub-assemblies and sub-systems: Tank Core and Magnetic Circuit Windings and Insulation system Leads and terminal arrangements Tap-changer for Voltage-Control Bushings, CTs Conservator Insulating Oil and Oil-preservation means Cooling system Fitments Carriage Marshalling kiosk Protective system.

A transformer has two or more sets of windings wound on a common magnetic core. The core and the windings are enclosed in a tank filled with dielectric oil. The terminals of the winding are connected to the internal end of bushing. The bushing provides the necessary insulating support to the conductor passing through the earthed tank. The bushings are supported on the tank-cover. A tap-changer may be provided on primary or secondary side. The tap-changer may be mounted on the tank either internally or externally. The taps of the winding are connected to the tap changer. Tap changers are either On-load type or off-load type. Tap changing gives change in secondary voltage for given primary voltage. Tap-changing is the basic method for voltage control of AC Networks and HVDC transmission system.

1. Flange for mounting. 2. Tank, Tank cover. 3. Core. 4. Conservator. 5. Cooler (Radiator). 6. Windings on 3. 7. LV bushing. 8. HV bushing. 9. Terminals connections. 10. Carriage. 11. Core-bolts. 12. Header. 13. Thermometer. 14. Buchholz relay. 15. Breather.

PARTS OF A DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER

The transformer is filled with dielectric oil or dry inert-gas. In case of oil filled transformers, a conservator is provided. It is installed at a slightly higher level than that of the tank. During higher loads the oil in the tank expands and the level of oil in the conservator rises. The air cushion in the conservator permits expansion and contraction of the oil in the tank without contact with moist external air. The air cushion in the conservator is connected to the external atmosphere via a silica-gel breather ensuring dryness of incoming air during the breathing. (refer item 15 in fig.).

Alternatively a rubber bag filled with air is fitted within the conservator. The rubber bag accommodates expansion and contraction of the oil without contact with external atmosphere. A Buhholz relay is connected in the pipe between the tank and the conservator. It sounds an alarm when gases are generated in oil due to small discharges or arcing.

A transformer needs adequate cooling to keep the temperature rise of the windings, core and the oil within safe limits. Depending upon the type of the cooling system, the transformer is provided with a radiator and associated cooling system. Large transformers are provided with following types of coolings. ONAF: Oil Natural Air Forced. Forced.

OFAF: Oil Forced Air Forced.

Effective cooling system gives lower temperature rise for same load. With better cooling, the size of transformer can be reduced. The core is made up of thin laminations (0.33 mm thick) of special electrical sheet steel. The cold rolled grain oriented silicon sheet steel - CRGO (with 3% silicon) is used for power transformers. Each lamination is provided with zinc-oxide coating or varnish insulation layer on both the sides. Such a construction of the core ensures low core losses. The core is builtup by placing the laminations in an interleaved fashion. The core is clamped and is provided with rigid insulated bolts.

In case of high-power transformers, special techniques are used for assembling the laminations of the limbs and core-bolts are avoided. The laminations are held together by fibre glass bands. The insulated windings are placed on the limbs. The windings are rigidly supported on the core by the insulation system. The design of insulation system is based on the voltage distribution during transient over-voltages and the forces during the short-circuit conditions. There are various types of windings. Choice depends on voltage and current rating of windings.

The tank and the core of the transformer are earthed. A marshalling kiosk provided with the transformer encloses various instruments such as temperature indicator and controller, relays for tap- changer control, cooler fan control etc. The connections of control and relay instruments in the panel in the control room are through the marshalling kiosk of the transformer.

Three phase transformers are built as single three phase units up to certain maximum MVA rating. Above such a rating a 3 phase transformer bank is formed by connecting three single phase units in required fashion. The choice between one 3-phase unit and 3-single phase depends on transportation limitations. In India, transformers above 300 MVA are generally built in single phase units. In Europe very large transformers (e.g. 1300 MVA) have been built as a three phase unit. The overall dimensions of a transformer are designed by considering permissible transport profile and weight.

1.5. RECENT ADVANCES Principles of power transformers were known during 1880s. However, the voltage and MVA ratings of power transformers have steadily grown and transformers have been developed to meet several system requirements. The transformer design, manufacturing and testing techniques have advanced with following objectives:

High efficiency Low material cost, smaller size High reliability, long life, low maintenance Low noise To conform to relevant specifications. The advances of power transformer technology has been accompanied by the progress in the tap-changers, bushings, surge arresters, protective relays, etc.

Important advances in power transformer technology include:

1. Improved Magnetic Materials for Core Grain Oriented Cold Rolled Silicon sheet steel, of 0.3 mm, 0.23 mm, 0.15 mm thickness Laser irradiation for improved grain orientation Lower losses Increased maximum flux density Reduced size of core.

2. Improved Method of Construction of Core

Use of mitred joint between laminations of leg and yoke. Elimination of core bolts Use of fibre glass bands impregnated with thermosetting resins for holdings the laminations in position.

3. Improved Conductors and Conductor Insulations: Multiple wire transposed conductors are now used, thereby the eddy current losses and skin effects are reduced and current distribution is more uniform. The conductors coated with epoxy resins are used. The epoxy resin gets hardened after polymerization resulting in strong coils.

4. Reduction in Noise Use of superior magnetic sheet steel, improved method of construction of core and tank, appropriate choice of speed of cooling fans for reduced noise of transformers.

5. Improved Design of Windings and Insulation System The distribution of electrical stresses between winding and core, windings, turns of winding, coils of a winding depends on electro-magnetic phenomena. The stresses are severe during lightning impulse waves and switching impulse waves.

The research carried out on electromagnetic phenomena and winding design has resulted in uniform stress distribution design. Windings have been designed for transformers of highest voltage ratings. The choice of the type of winding depends upon rated system voltage and MVA capacity per leg.

Type of windings include: Continuous disc windings Continuous disc windings with floating shield Interleaved disc winding Layer type winding.

The windings are (1) without shield (2) with shield (3) uniform insulation or graded insulation. The advances in the understanding of electromagnetic transient phenomena and uniform stress distribution in windings has resulted in design of windings for higher insulation levels.

6.Fabrication of Tank The configurations and design philosophy varies with manufacturers. Advances in design have resulted in reduction in tank size, reduced quantity of oil, reduced manufacturing costs and reduced vibrations.

7. Improved Conservator Design Earlier conservators were with breather fitted in between conservator and external air. In modern conservators, a rubber bellow (bag) filled with compressed air is held suspended within the conservator. Such a construction gives an effective reliable separation between oil in conservator and the atmospheric air.

8. Improved Short-Circuit Strength Earlier generation of power transformers were weak in short - circuit strengths. The improved design of insulation systems and windings, based on repeated short-circuit performance has resulted in stronger windings and transformers of higher short-circuit strengths.

9. Improved Efficiency and Improved Methods of Loading By improved design of core, windings, and optimization of design, the transformers of lower losses and higher efficiencies are now available. The lower losses require higher material cost. Lower losses give higher initial cost and lower operating cost of losses. For proper choice, the methods of capitalization of losses have been standardized.

Tenders are compared by adding together capital cost of transformer and capitalized cost of losses. This method has resulted in slightly higher site of core and windings and reduced operating losses.

10. Guide for Loading For discontinuous loading, the design of transformer can be optimized by reduced size of core and windings, without exceeding temperature limits. IEC Guide 354 for loading of Power Transformers is useful in this regard.

11. Improved Manufacturing Techniques

The manufacturing techniques have advanced in several respects including the following: (1) Use of large cropping machines for cropping magnetic core laminations. Width of strip to be cut 1000 mm, length of sheet to be cut 5000 mm - automatically controlled. (2) Automatic stacking machines for stacking laminations in the core.

(3)

Presses: Windings are subjected to vacuum and heating cycles. While they are held under constant axial pressure. High pressure press (up to 800 Ton) is used for holding the windings under axial pressure. Vapour Phase Drying: The assembled core and windings are cleaned and dried by use of vapour phase drying technique.

(4)

This method gives rapid cleaning and drying with least ageing of dielectric materials of the winding and insulation system.

(5) Improved Manufacture of Tank: large tanks are fabricated, welded, shotblasted and painted in modern fabrication shops. (6) Improved Testing and Quality Control Techniques: Quality control techniques are applied during manufacture. Tests are applied on major sub-assemblies and complete transformer.

Important advances include: Monitoring of hot-spot temperature by measurement of dissolved gases in oil, Infra-red photography to detect hot spots Verification of short-circuit strength Detection of partial discharges.

Partial discharge is defined as a localized electrical discharge in insulating materials, oil. The discharge occurs only partially and does not bridge the conductors completely. Partial discharge test gives location and possible cause and possible defects in the insulation. Partial discharge has been introduced as a routine test for transformers and reactors rated 300 kV and above.

1.6. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 1. Transformer: A static apparatus which transforms a.c. electrical power from one voltage to another voltage at the same frequency by electromagnetic induction. 2. Core-type transformer: A transformer in which the windings surrounded the limbs of the core. 3. Shell-type transformer: A transformer in which the core surrounds and major portion of the windings.

4. Auto-transformer: A transformer in which the primary and the secondary windings have a common portion. 5. Oil-immersed type transformer: A transformer which has the core and windings immersed in oil (or synthetic insulating liquid). 6. Dry type transformer: The transformer which has no oil or dielectric liquid. 7.Single-phase transformer: It has a single phase primary winding and a single phase secondary winding (and may have a single phase third winding).

8.Three-phase Transformer: It has a set of three phase primary winding and a three phase secondary winding (and may have a three phase third winding). 9.Neutral point: A point common to three phases of a star connected three phase winding. Neutral point is normally at zero potential. 10.Terminal: The conducting part to which the line conductor of external system is connected.

11.Winding: An assembly of turns forming an electrical circuit associated with of the assigned voltage. 12. Two-winding Transformer: It has two sets of windings, HV and LV (High voltage, Low voltage). 13. Three-winding Transformer: It has three sets of windings, HV, MV, LV (High voltage, Medium voltage, Low voltage).

14. HV, MV, LV Windings: HV=High Voltage MV=Medium Voltage LV = Low Voltage. 15. High Voltage Winding: Winding having highest rated voltage. 16. Low Voltage Winding: The winding has lowest rated voltage. 17. Intermediate Voltage Winding: The winding of a multi-winding transformer having rated voltage intermediate between the highest and the lowest rated voltages.

17. Intermediate Voltage Winding: The winding of a multi-winding transformer having rated voltage intermediate between the highest and the lowest rated voltages. 18. Primary Winding: The winding to which input voltage is applied. 19. Secondary Winding: The winding to which the load is connected or which delivers output.

20. Tertiary Winding: Winding in addition to the primary and the secondary winding which is provided for any of the following purposes: To obtain additional voltage To stabilize neutral in case of a star/star transformer. To reduce third harmonics and control zero sequence impedance. 21. Auxiliary Winding: A winding intended only for a small load compared with the rated power of the transformer.

22. Tappings: (a) Principle tapping: The tapping to which the rated quantities are related. (b) Tapping Factor corresponding to given tapping Ratio Ud/Un (tapping factor) Ud/Un x 100 (tapping factor as %tage) Where Un=Rated voltage of winding Ud=Voltage which would be developed at no load at terminals of winding, connected on tapping concerned by applying rated voltage to untapped winding.

23. System Voltages: (a) Nominal system voltage: Nominal value of r.m.s. line to line voltage under normal operating condition e.g. 220 kV. (b) Highest system voltage: Highest r.m.s. line to line voltage permissible to be maintained under normal operating conditions e.g. 245 kV.

24. Insulation Level: It is a combination of the rated voltage, power frequency withstand voltage, impulse withstand voltage values which characterize the insulation of the apparatus. The insulation level refers to that of the respective winding. Basic Insulation Level is a term which includes the following characteristic of a transformer: Power frequency voltage withstand level Lightning impulse voltage withstand level Switching impulse voltage withstand level (applicable to transformer windings rated 220 kV and above). These withstand levels together characterize the insulation level of a transformer winding.

25. Insulation Coordination: Insulation coordination is correlation of insulation of equipment and circuit with the characteristic of protective devices such that the insulation is protected from over voltages. 26. Voltage Regulation of a Transformer: (V). The voltage regulation of a power transformer is the numerical difference between the rated secondary voltage (V2-r) and the actual secondary voltage (V2-a) across the secondary terminals for given load and its power factor, with rated voltage applied to the primary winding.

V = (V2-rated) (V2-actual) Percentage regulation is expressed as a percentage of rated secondary voltage. Thus, % V = {[(V2-rated) (V2-actual)] / (V2-actual)} x 100 27. Impedance Voltage: It is also called the short-circuit voltage Vsc. It is the voltage required to be applied to drive rated current under shortcircuit condition. It is a vector sum of Resistance and Reactance voltage. Impedance voltage is determined by conducting sustained short-circuit test.

28. Losses: (a) No Load Losses: The losses occurring in a transformer when the secondary is not loaded and the primary is supplied with rated voltage at rated frequency. No-load losses are also called Core Losses or Iron Losses and are equal to the sum of hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. (b) Load Losses or Short-Circuit Losses: These are also called copper losses. The load loss (short-circuit loss) is equal to the active power absorbed by the transformer while carrying rated current in primary and secondary windings under loaded short circuited condition.

(c) Total Losses: It is the sum of No-load Loss and Load Loss. It is also the sum of Iron Loss and Copper Loss. (d) Efficiency of the Transformer % = (Output / Input) x 100 = [Output / (Output + Losses)] x 100 29. Rating: Numerical value assigned to the transformer under specified operating conditions, which denote the capabilities of the transformer and which are proved by tests. Ratings are in the form of Rated Quantities of voltage, current, power, etc.

Ratings include: Rated Voltage of a winding Rated voltage ratio Rated power Rated current Rated insulation level Rated frequency Ratings of bushings Ratings of tap-changer.

30. Kinds of Tests on a Transformer: Acceptance Tests Type Tests Routine Tests Special Tests

31. Reactor: It is an apparatus having a predominant inductive coil. 32. Series Reactor: A reactor connected in series with the electric circuit for limiting the currents during surges, short-circuit, starting, load fluctuations, synchronizing, etc. 33. Shunt Reactor: A reactor connected between line and earth or between lines for providing reactive volt-ampere compensation (during low loads or no loads), or for filtering undesirable harmonics, etc.

1.7. SUB-STATION EQUIPMENT ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSFORMERS AND PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS

A sub-station is an assemblage of electrical apparatus. Transformers are necessary in a substation for stepping-up and stepping-down of a.c. voltage. Besides the transformers, the sub-station has several other electrical equipments including busbars, circuit breakers, isolators, surge arresters, CTs, VTs, Shunt-Reactors, Shunt Capacitors, etc. A typical layout of a Sub-station circuit is shown in Fig. The functions of the sub-station apparatus have been mentioned in Table.

The transformer is covered by a protective zone of transformer protection. The boundaries of the protective zone are determined by location of the protective CTs. The transformer protection comprises over current protection, earth-fault protection, differential protection, etc. The protective relays are connected to secondary of CTs and VTs. The internal faults or abnormal conditions in the transformer protective zone initiate the operation of respective protective relay. The operation of the protective relay causes initiation of an alarm or tripping of circuitbreakers, thereby the transformer is a switched off automatically.

Surge Arresters are provided on one or both sides of large important transformers. These are connected near the transformer terminals between line and ground. The surge arrester (surge diverter) protects the transformer from lightning over voltages and switching over voltages. The neutral of a star-connected winding may be earthed directly (solid earthing) or through a resistance (resistance earthing). The choice of neutral earthing is decided on the basis of system requirements related with the earth fault current, insulation co-ordination and earth-fault protection.

TABLE: FUNCTION OF SUB-STATION EQUIPMENT ASSOCIATED WITH POWER TRANSFORMERS 1.Bus-bars Incoming and outgoing circuits connected to bus-bars. 2. Circuit-Breakers Automatic switching during normal or abnormal conditions. 3. Isolators Disconnection under no-load condition for safety, isolation, and maintenance. 4. Earthing Switch To discharge the voltage on dead lines to earth. 5. Current Transformers To step-down current for measurement, control and protection.

6. Voltage Transformer To step-down voltage for measurement control and protection. Capacitor Type Voltage - Transformer (CVT) 7. Surge Arrester (Lightning Arrester) To discharge lightning over voltages and switching over voltages to earth. 8. Shunt Reactor To provide reactive power compensation during low loads. 9. Series Reactors (not shown) To reduce the short-circuit currents or starting currents. 10. Neutral - Grounding Resistor To limit the earth fault current.

11. Harmonic filters To divert harmonic component to earth and purify the AC waveform. 12. SVC Static VAr Compensator. Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) and thyristor controlled capacitor (TCC) for rapid step less control of reactive power.

1.8

TRASFORMERS IN GENERATING STATIONS (PL. REFER FIG.)

In the Unit System adopted universally, each generator is directly connected to the unit step-up transformer (Main Transformer without any circuit-breaker in-between. The connection between the generator terminals and the step-up transformer is usually in the form of Isolated Phase Bus ducts. The generator and its unit step-up transformer form the Unit. Each unit has its own turbine, control and auxiliaries. The unit auxiliaries are supplied through unit-auxiliary transformer.

The MVA rating of the Main Unit Transformers (GT) is almost equal to the MVA rating of the generator. The MVA rating of the unit-auxiliary transformer is 8 to 10 per cent of the generator MVA rating in thermal power plants. The UnitProtection Zone includes the generator protection, auxiliary transformer protection and the main step-up transformer protection. Generatortransformer protection is complex. There are several step-down auxiliary transformers in a power station.

Unit Auxiliaries are supplied via the unit-auxiliary transformer. The station auxiliaries are supplied through another transformer called StationService Transformer. While starting the unit, the auxiliaries receive power from the bus bars via the station service transformer. Once the unit is started, it feeds its own auxiliaries via the unit auxiliary transformer.

1.9. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS: IEC and IS standards on power transformers have been published in several parts. They cover several aspects including: Terms and definitions Standard characteristics Performance specifications Recommended standard ratings Test conditions and test methods Permissible tolerances Service conditions Guidelines for selection Guidelines for installation and operation Guidelines for maintenance etc.

Standards have been published on

(1) Transformers (2) Reactors (3) Tap-changers (4) Bushings (5) Fittings (6) Insulation coordination and high voltage testing (7) Short-circuit withstand tests, (8) Transformer oil (9) Various materials, etc. Standard specifications are useful for preparation of purchase specifications, designing, testing, operation, maintenance, etc. Standards are useful to the manufacturers and the users.

1.10. RATINGS OF A TRANSFORMER: A small transformer is selected for certain rated voltages and kVA rating. For a large transformer, the following ratings and data is essential for specifying the transformer.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Type e.g. : Power transformer, auto transformer Standard specification, e.g. IEC Rated power (for each winding) Rated frequency (e.g. 50 Hz) Number of phases Rated voltages (of each winding) Rated currents (of each winding)

8. Rated insulation levels (of each winding) 9. Connection symbol (e.g. star/delta) 10. Impedance voltage at rated current 11. Type of cooling (e.g. OFAF) 12. Total mass, mass of tank without oil, mass of oil 13. Connection diagram

Following data is given in certain cases

14. Temperature class of insulation 15. Insulation levels 16. Temperature rise 17. Transportation mass 18. Untanking mass 19. Insulating liquid if other than mineral oil

20. Details regarding tappings Winding to which tappings are provided Tapping voltage, tapping current, tapping power of each winding Short-circuit impedance on extreme tapping 21. Ability of transformer to operate at voltage exceeding 105% of tapping voltage 22. Other details, if any, as per specifications.

1.11. PURCHASE SPECIFICATIONS: These are prepared by the user for tender enquiry. The essential basic data to be given in the purchase specifications of a power transformer includes the following:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Standards e.g. IEC, IS Nominal kVA or MVA rating Rated winding voltages Number of phases Frequency Type of cooling Ambient temperature of cooling medium

8. Phase connections 9. Phase relationship 10. Terminal arrangement 11. Altitude if more than 1000 m 12. Transport limitation, weight and dimensions 13. Impulse levels for lightning surges 14. Impulse levels for switching surges (if applicable) 15. Impedance with acceptable minimum and maximum values for limitation of fault current level and or for voltage regulation. 16. Characteristics of transformers if parallel operation is required.

17. Tapping range: Number of steps, size of step, whether on-load or off-load. Impedance variation over tapping range 18. Bushings, clearances, creepage requirements 19. Performance requirements with load cycle and emergency over- loading 20. Fittings, Paint, Finish 21. Guaranteed maximum losses: The purchaser should advise the manufacturer the basis for minimum first cost, maximum efficiency or capitalization of losses. 22. Maximum Audible Noise at given distance, dB.

The specifications should state clearly the technical and operating conditions. The details on construction should be left to the manufacturer. With competitive market, the manufacturer should bring-out minimum cost design for given specifi-cations without over-designing. Therefore every requirement beyond the standard specifications should be clearly brought out in the purchase specifications.

1.12. PROGRESS OF TRANSFORMER TECHNOLOGY: Transformers were invented around 1885 in Europe and USA. Transformers have played a very significant role in the growth of electrical power system: In early years, the core was of ordinary low carbon iron. The core losses were high. Flux densities were low, size of core was large, efficiency was poor (60 to 90%). Life expectancy was low (12-15 years).

Cold-rolled grain oriented silicon steel sheet lamination (CRGO) with oxide coating are used in todays transformers. Manufacturing techniques have advanced. Superior low ageing material is now available. The flux densities of the order of 1.7 Tesla are now possible and with loss of less than 1.l W/kg (Earlier 1.3 Tesla with loss of 1.9 W/kg). Modern transformer cores are built with mitred joints and without any core bolts. The laminations are held together by resin bonded fibre-glass bands.

Modern transformers are with high efficiency (more than 99%) and with long service life (more than 20 years). Better cooling techniques have been developed. This has resulted in compact and efficient coolers and lower hot spot temperatures, longer insulation life. Weight/MVA ratios and size of transformers have reduced significantly. The oil, insulating materials and design of insulation system have improved.

Transient phenomena and stresses on insulation system have been understood. This has resulted in successful development of 400 kV, 765 kV, 1000 kV and 1200 kV transformers. Transformer have been developed for HVDC transmission systems of rated voltages 500 kV, 600 kV, etc. Transformers have been developed to meet all the requirements of transmission distribution and utilization.