LECTURE (5)

SOLAR ENERGY

INTRODUCTION OF SOLAR ENERGY

Solar radiation reaches the Earths surface at a maximum flux density of about 10kWm2 in a wavelength band between 0.3 and 2.5m. For inhabited areas, this flux varies from about 3 to 30MJm2 day1, depending on place, time and weather. Therefore the outward radiant energy fluxes emitted by the Earths atmosphere and surfaces are also of the order of 1kWm2, but occur in an infrared wavelength band between about 5 and 25m.

Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation

Nuclear fusion reactions in the active core of the Sun produce inner temperatures of about 107 K. This internal radiation is absorbed in the outer passive layers which are heated to about 5800K. The radiant flux (W/m2) from the Sun at the Earths distance varies through the year by 4% because of the slightly non-circular path of the Earth around the Sun. The radiance also varies by perhaps 0.3 per cent per year due to sunspots.

Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation

Figure shows the spectral distribution of the solar irradiance at the Earths mean distance, uninfluenced by any atmosphere. [The area beneath this curve is the solar constant G = 1367Wm ]

0 -2

Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation

The area beneath this curve is the solar constant G0 = 1367Wm-2. This is the RFD incident on a plane directly facing the Sun and outside the atmosphere at a distance of 1496108 km from the Sun (i.e. at the Earths mean distance from the Sun).
The solar spectrum can be divided into three main regions: (The proportions given are as received at the Earths surface with the Sun incident at about 45.) 1- Ultraviolet region (< 0.4m) 5% of the irradiance 2- Visible region (0.4m< <0.7m) 43% of the irradiance 3- Infrared region ( > 0.7m) 52% of the irradiance.
Individual photons of energy E = hc/ Then the range from 0.3 to 2.5 m corresponds to photon energies of 4.10.50 eV.

Geometry of the Earth and Sun

North and south poles N and S. The axis of the poles is normal to the earths equatorial plane. C is the centre of the Earth. The point P on the Earths surface is determined by its latitude and longitude . Latitude is defined positive for points north of the equator, negative south of the equator. Longitude is measured positive eastwards from Greenwich, England. The vertical northsouth plane through P is the local meridional plane. E and G in Figure are the points on the equator having the same longitude as P and Greenwich respectively. Noon solar time occurs once every 24 h when the meridional plane CEP includes the Sun, as for all points having that longitude.

Geometry of the Earth and Sun

Geometry of the Earth and Sun

The hour angle at P is the angle through which the Earth has rotated since solar noon. Since the Earth rotates at 360/24 h = 15 h1, the hour angle is given by:

Where
tsolar and tzone are respectively the local solar and civil times (measured in hours)

zone is the longitude where the Sun is overhead when tzone is noon is positive in the evening and negative in the morning The small correction term eq is called the equation of time; it never exceeds 15 min and can be neglected

Geometry of the Earth and Sun

The Earth orbits the Sun once per year, whilst the direction of its axis remains fixed in space, at an angle 0 =23.45o away from the normal to the plane of revolution. The angle between the Suns direction and the equatorial plane is called the declination . declination is the latitude of the point where the Sun is exactly overhead at solar noon. (If the line from the centre of the Earth to the Sun cuts the Earths surface at P)

Geometry of the Earth and Sun

Geometry of the Earth and Sun

where n is the day in the year (n = 1 on 1 January). The error for a leap year is insignificant in practice. The daily insolation H is the total energy per unit area received in one day from the sun:

Its seasonal variation arises from three main factors:

1- Variation in the length of the day 2- Orientation of receiving surface cos z = cos() 3- Variation in atmospheric absorption The clear day radiation plotted in Figure is less than the extraterrestrial radiation because of atmospheric attenuation. This attenuation increases with z

Geometry of the Earth and Sun

Geometry of the Earth and Sun

latitude , declination , and slope of a collector at P. is the angle of incidence on the north/south-facing collector.

 Slope .
horizontal.

Geometry of Collector and the Solar Beam

The angle between the plane surface in question and the

Surface azimuth angle . Projected on the horizontal plane, is the

angle between the normal to the surface and the local longitude meridian.

Angle of incidence
normal. vertical.

the angle between solar beam and surface

(Solar) zenith angle z.

The angle between the solar beam and the

Solar altitude s = 90 z.

The complement to the (solar) zenith angle; angle of solar beam to the horizontal. the angle between the solar beam and the longitude meridian.

Sun (solar) azimuth angle s. Projected on the horizontal plane, (Solar) hour angle . The angle Earth has rotated since solar noon.

Geometry of Collector and the Solar Beam

 With this sign convention, basic, yet careful, geometry gives equations essential for solar modeling:

Geometry of Collector and the Solar Beam

A collector oriented towards the equator will directly face the solar beam at noon if its slope is equal to the latitude . In this case = 0, =, the equation will be reduced to:

 Two cautions should be noted about the previous equation, and other formulas similar to it that may be encountered.
1- At higher latitudes in summer, noticeably exceeds 90o in early to mid morning and from mid to late evening, when the sun rises from or falls to the observers horizon (i.e. cos negative). When this happens for instance in the northern hemisphere, sunshine is on the north side of buildings and on the rear side of a fixed south-facing collector, not the front. 2- Formulas are normally derived for the case when all angles are positive, and in particular >0. Some northern writers pay insufficient attention to sign, with the result that their formulas do not apply in the southern hemisphere. Southern readers will be wise to check all such formulas.

Geometry of Collector and the Solar Beam

Components of Radiation
The radiation will be observable from the direction of the Suns disc in the direct beam, and also from other directions as diffuse Radiation.

Even on a cloudless, clear day, there is always at least 10% diffuse irradiance from the molecules in the atmosphere. It is important to identify the various components of solar radiation and to clarify the plane on which the irradiance is being measured.

Components of Radiation
Subscripts as illustrated in Figure: b for beam, d for diffuse, t for total, h for the horizontal plane, c for the plane of a collector, the asterisk denotes the plane perpendicular to the beam and subscript 0 denotes values outside the atmosphere in space. Subscripts c and t are assumed if no subscripts are given, so that G no subscript Gtc.

Components of Radiation

Components of Radiation
where is the angle between the beam and the normal to the collector surface. where z is the (solar) zenith angle between the beam and the vertical.

The total irradiance on any plane is the sum of the beam and diffuse components.

 A concentrating collector should always point towards the direction of the solar beam (i.e. = 0). However, the optimum direction of a fixed flat plate collector may not be obvious, because the insolation Hc received is the sum of both the beam and the diffuse components: A suitable fixed collector orientation for most purposes is facing the equator with a slope equal to the latitude. However, since cos 1 for < 30, variations of 30o in azimuth or slope should have little effect on the total energy collected.

Optimum Orientation of a Collector