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A Fundamental Truth
We dont see the world as it is; we see the world through the lens through which we look at it.
World War II Students received course credit by passing the examinations (credit-by-examination) Quite obviously, the exams had to be based on course objectives (validity) and of sufficient length to be reliable. University Examiners Responsible for designing or helping to design end-of-course examinations
Objectives were used to form categories; then categories were used to classify objectives. 80 % of the objectives fell into the Knowledge category
The Revision
Began in November 1996 Led by David Krathwohl Involved cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists, teacher educators, and measurement and assessment specialists. Group met twice a year for four years. Draft completed in 2000; text published in 2001. Two books soft cover for teachers and other practitioners and hard cover for academicians.
In education, objectives are statements of what we want students to learn as a result of the instruction we provide. Standards are simply mandated objectives.
Subject S
Verb V
Object O
The verbs provide clues as to the cognitive process category intended by the person or persons writing the standard. Adopted from the original Blooms taxonomy of educational objectives, there are six cognitive process categories.
Bloom
Evaluation Synthesis Analysis Application Comprehension Knowledge
Revised Bloom
Create Evaluate Analyze Apply Understand Remember
Each of the six cognitive process categories was divided into specific cognitive processes. Nineteen (19) specific cognitive processes were identified.
Cognitive Processes
Remember Understand
Apply Analyze
Evaluate Create
Executing Implementing Differentiating Organizing Attributing Checking Critiquing Generating Planning Producing
Unlike the verbs, the objects of the standards are subject-specific (e.g., math, science, social studies). The objects specify the CONTENT of the standard. For several reasons, CONTENT was replaced by KNOWLEDGE.
Content is subject-matter specific. If you focused on content, then, you would need as many taxonomies as there are subject matters (e.g., one for science, one for history, etc.). Content exists outside the student. A major problem, then, is how to get the content inside the student. When content gets inside the student, it becomes knowledge. This transformation of content to knowledge takes place through the cognitive processes used by the student.
HOT ARTICHOKE DIP (Serves 10 to 14) 2 14-oz cans artichoke hearts 16 oz. mayonnaise 1 c. grated Parmesan cheese Garlic salt (optional) ==================================== 1. Drain artichoke hearts. 2. Mash artichokes with fork. 3. Mix with mayonnaise, cheese, and garlic salt. 4. Bake at 350 degrees for 15 minutes or until cheese is melted. 5. Serve with crackers or party rye.
DIMENSION
FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE
A1 B1 C1 D1
A2 B2 C2 D2
A3 B3 C3 D3
A4 B4 C4 D4
A5 B5 C5 D5
A6 B6 C6 D6
How it Works
Explain the political alliances and policies that impacted the United States in the latter part of the 20th Century, including NATO, the UN, and OPEC
Verb = Explain Object = the political alliances and policies that impacted the United States in the latter part of the 20th Century including NATO, the UN, and OPEC [Extraneous information]
Verb = Explain = Understand Object = the political alliances and policies that impacted the United States in the latter part of the 20th Century = Conceptual Knowledge
Summarize the provisions of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution, including how the amendments protected the rights of African Americans and sought to enhance their political, social, and economic opportunities
Verb = Summarize Object = Provisions of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution
Including how the amendments protected the rights of African Americans and sought to enhance their political, social, and economic opportunities [Extraneous information]
Verb = Summarize = Understand Object = Provisions of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution = Factual Knowledge
DIMENSION
FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE
Standard 2
Standard 1
The SVO format of standards in combination with the twodimensional structure of the Taxonomy Table allows us to classify standards so we better understand their intent and meaning in terms of student learning.
Additional Benefits
Curriculum Alignment
Assessments Objectives
Curriculum Alignment
validity of assessment Increases students opportunity to learn Provides more accurate estimates of teaching effectiveness Permits better instructional decisions to be made
Traditional Alignment
What content is included in the objective? What content is included on the assessment(s)? Is the content included in the objective and/or on the assessment included in the instructional materials? If the content is the same, there is a high level of alignment.
Objectives
Assessments
Understand
Apply
Analyze
Evaluate
Create
STEM
(1) Question (2) Incomplete Statement (3) Directive
RESPONSE
(1) Short-Answer * Supply (Fill in the blank) * Select (Multiple-choice, Matching, True-False) (2) Extended Response * Written * Performance
No Introductory Material Stem as Question or Incomplete Statement Supply (Recall) or Select (Recognize) Format
Teach concepts in relation to one another; show connections and relationships using visual representations and graphic organizers. 4. 5. Use metaphors and similes. Use hands-on activities and manipulatives; build models.
Historical link (1949 to the present) Two dimensions match the structure of all objectives: subject-verb-object. Complete crossing of rows with columns makes knowledge and cognitive processes equally important The use of verbs is critical since the verbs represent the cognitive processes that students use on or with the content so that learning occurs