Chapter 3

Muscle Physiology

Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Differentiate the major classes of muscle in the body. Describe the molecular and electrical makeup of muscle cell excitationcontraction coupling. Define thin and thick filaments and how they slide to create contraction.

Objectives contd

Differentiate the role(s) for Ca2+ in skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle contraction. Distinguish the functional differences between red and white muscle. Identify the general concepts involved in the sliding filament model for skeletal muscle contraction. Be familiar with the roles played by ATP

Outline

Skeletal Muscle Structure Neuromuscular Junction Motor Unit Structure of Muscle Fiber How Fiber Contracts Characteristics of Contractions Metabolism of Skeletal Muscle Types of Skeletal Muscle Neural Control Cardiac & Smooth Muscle

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscles are organs Vary in shape and size A skeletal muscle is composed of cells

Each cell is as long as the muscle Small muscle: 100 micrometers long; 10 micrometers in diameter Large muscle: 35 centimeters long; 100 micrometers in diameter

Skeletal Muscle cells are called MUSCLE FIBERS

Composition of Skeletal Muscle

Each skeletal muscle is composed of fascicles.

bundles of muscle fibers composed of myofilaments

Muscle fibers contain myofibrils.

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Muscle Classification

Functionally
1. Voluntarily 2. Involuntarily

Combined
1. Visceral 2. Cardiac 3. Skeletal

Structurally
1. Striated 2. Smooth

TYPES OF MUSCLE
LOCATION MICROSCOPI RELATIONSHIP SPEED OF WITH THE C CONTRATION NERVOUS APPEARANCE SYSTEM
HEAVYILY STRIATED VOLUNTARY SLOW TO FAST CONTRACTIONS

SKELETAL

VISCERAL

NONSTRIATED (SMOOTH)

INVOLUNTARY

VERY SLOW CONTRACTIONS

CARDIAC

LIGHTLY STRIATED

AUTORHYTHMIC

SLOW CONTRACTIONS

3 Types of Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscle

Attaches to bone, skin or fascia Striated with light & dark bands Nuclei multiple and peripherally located Voluntary control of contraction & relaxation

3 Types of Muscle Tissue

Cardiac muscle (Heart),

Striated in appearance Involuntary control

Single nucleus centrally located

Autorhythmic because of built in pacemaker

3 Types of Muscle Tissue

Smooth muscle

Nonstriated in appearance Involuntary Single nucleus centrally located In walls of hollow organs -- blood vessels, GI eye, glands, skin

GENERAL FUNCTIONS
1. Skeletal muscle

Movement and heat production.

2. Smooth muscle

Propulsion of food and urine.

pumping blood to the lungs and body.

3. Cardiac muscle

Muscular System Functions

Body movement Maintenance of posture Respiration Production of body heat Communication Constriction of organs and vessels Heart beat

Properties of Muscle

Contractility

Ability of a muscle to shorten with force

Excitability

Capacity of muscle to respond to a stimulus

Muscle can be stretched to its normal resting length and beyond to a limited degree Ability of muscle to recoil to original resting length after stretched

Extensibility

Elasticity

Skeletal Muscle -- Connective

Tissue

Connective tissue components of the muscle include Epimysium = surrounds the whole muscle perimysium = surrounds bundles (fascicles) of 10-100 muscle cells.

Fascicles: Composed of columns of muscle fibers.

Endomysium = separates individual muscle cells All these connective tissue layers extend beyond the muscle belly to form the tendon

Structure of Skeletal Muscle

Muscle Fiber or Myofibers

Are cells (number is fixed). Muscle cells are long, cylindrical & multinucleated Sarcolemma = muscle cell membrane Sarcoplasm filled with tiny threads called myofibrils & myoglobin (red-colored, oxygen-binding protein)

Muscle fiber

Transverse Tubules

T (transverse) tubules are invaginations of the Sarcolemma into the center of the cell

filled with extracellular fluid carry muscle action potentials down into cell near the muscle proteins that use ATP during contraction

Mitochondria lie in rows throughout the cell

Myofibrils & Myofilaments

Muscle fibers are filled with threads called myofibrils separated by SR (sarcoplasmic reticulum) Myofilaments (thick & thin filaments) are the contractile proteins of muscle

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)

System of tubular sacs similar to smooth ER in nonmuscle cells. Parallel to the myofibrils Stores Ca+2 in a relaxed muscle Action potential releases Ca++ from the vesicles

Release of Ca+2 triggers muscle contraction

Internal organization:

Striations:

Structure of Muscle Fiber

Structure of Muscle Fiber

Each fiber is packed with myofibrils Myofibrils are 1 in diameter and extend length of fiber Packed with myofilaments Myofilaments are composed of thick and thin filaments that give rise to bands which underlie striations

Filaments:

Thick

Myosin Actin

Thin

They interdigitate partially Myosin has cross bridges They interact with actin; leads to contraction Actin is anchored to z disk or line Z disk or line passes across the myofibrils

Thick filament

composed of structural protein, myosin. Head (cross bridge) possesses actin binding site and ATPase activity. Has tropomyosin & troponin Tropomyosin Prevents coupling with myosin by masking active site Troponin is a regulatory protein bound to tropomyosin

Thin filament

Troponin

Three-polypeptide complex

Tn I: inhibitory subunit Tn T: helps position tropomyosin on actin Tn C: binds to Ca2+

Actin filament

Troponin is embedded in actin at regular intervals It has high affinity for Ca++ Ca++ causes conformational change Ca++ Tugs and pushes tropomyosin deeper into the groove Unmasks active site Unmasking triggers interaction with myosin

Structure of Myofibril

A band is dark, contains thick filaments (mostly myosin) Light area at center of A band is H band = area where actin and myosin dont overlap I band is light, contains thin filaments (mostly actin) At center of I band is Z line/disc where actins attach

M lines are structural proteins that anchor myosin during contraction Titin is elastic protein attaching myosin to Z disc that contributes to elastic recoil of muscle

SARCOMERE

A is the functional contractile unit of Skeletal muscle. It consists of three types of proteins
1. Contractile proteins 2. Regulatory proteins 3. Structural proteins Contractile proteins generate Force during contraction. The Two contractile proteins are Actin and myosin.

Regulatory proteins help to switch the contraction process on and off. The two regulatory proteins are

Tropomyosin and Troponin.

Structural proteins contribute to the alignment, stability, elasticity, and extensibility of myofibrils. There are a number of structural proteins including Titin, Connectin, and Myomesin.

MYOSIN

MYOSIN

ACTIN, TROPOMYSOIN, TROPONIN

SARCOMERE

SARCOMERE

Sarcomere
Contractile subunit of a muscle fiber From Z to Z

 Organization of the sarcomere

Thick filaments = myosin filaments Composed of the protein myosin

Has ATP-ase enzymes

 Organization of the sarcomere, cont

Thin filaments = actin filaments
Composed of the protein actin

 Myosin filaments have heads (extensions, or cross bridges)

Myosin and actin overlap

 At rest, there is a bare [H] zone that lacks actin filaments

Organization of myofilaments

Organization of myofilaments

Mechanisms of Contraction
Muscle contraction: Occurs because of sliding of thin filaments over and between thick filaments towards center. Shortening the distance from Z disc to Z disc.

Sliding Filament Theory Of Contraction

Actin myofilaments sliding over myosin to shorten sarcomeres

Actin and myosin do not change length Shortening sarcomeres responsible for skeletal muscle contraction

During relaxation, sarcomeres lengthen

Sliding Filament Theory contd Sliding of filaments is produced by the actions of cross bridges.

Cross bridges are part of the myosin proteins that extend out toward actin.

Form arms that terminate in heads. The myosin head functions as a myosin ATPase.

Each myosin head contains an ATP-binding site.

Sliding Filament Theory

(continued)

Sliding filament model II:

Sarcomere Shortening

Contraction

Myosin binding site splits ATP to ADP and Pi. ADP and Pi remain bound to myosin until myosin heads attach to actin. Pi is released, causing the power stroke to occur. Power stroke pulls actin toward the center of the A band. ADP is released, when myosin binds to a fresh ATP at the end of the power stroke.

Contraction

(continued)

Release of ADP upon binding to another ATP, causes the cross bridge bond to break. Cross bridges detach, ready to bind again. Synchronous action:

Only 50% of the cross bridges are attached at any given time.

Contraction

(continued)

Cross Bridges
Are

formed by heads of myosin molecules that extend toward and interact with actin Sliding of filaments is produced by actions of cross bridges Each myosin head contains an ATP-binding site which functions as an ATPase

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

12-24

Cross Bridges continued

Myosin

cant bind to actin unless it is cocked by ATP After binding, myosin undergoes conformational change (power stroke) which exerts force on actin After power stroke myosin detaches

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

12-25

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

12-26

Regulation of Contraction

Regulation of cross bridge attachment to actin due to:

Tropomyosin:.

Lies within grove between double row of G-actin. Attached to tropomyosin.

Troponin:

Serves as a switch for muscle contraction and relaxation.

In relaxed muscle:

Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin.

Excitation-Contraction Coupling

Mechanism where an action potential causes muscle fiber contraction Involves

Sarcolemma Transverse or T tubules Terminal cisternae Sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ Troponin

Sequence of contraction
Excitation: Step 1

Action potential (AP) travels to nerve ending ACh release at the NMJ Activation of Nicotinic receptors by ACh Na channels are opened AP is generated in the muscle fiber Depolarization of Sarcolemma AP transmitted down T-tubule Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca++

Sequence of Contraction
Contraction: Step II

Ca++ binds to troponin C Active actin site is exposed Myosin heads bind to actin Myosin heads rotate Myosin heads disengage Cycle repeats (Ca++ and ATP needed)

Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Energy Production
Action potential reaches muscle fibers Myosin head (MH) combines with ATP MHs ATPase activated ATP is cleaved by ATPase MH + ATP ADP+ Pi + Energy

Relaxation Step III

APs must cease for the muscle to relax. ACh-esterase degrades ACh. Ca2+ release channels close. Ca2+ pumped back into SR through Ca2+-ATPase pumps.

Actin sites are covered by troponin.

Choline recycled to make more ACh. Steps of Muscle Contraction

Sliding Filament Model of Contraction

Regulatory Role of Tropomyosin and Troponin

(b) 1 Ca2+ levels increase in cytosol. 4 Power stroke 3 3 Troponin-Ca2+ complex pulls tropomyosin away from G-actin binding site. Tropomyosin shifts, exposing binding site on G-actin ADP Pi Initiation of contraction

Ca2+ binds to troponin.

TN Myosin binds to actin and completes power stroke. 2 5 Actin filament moves. 1 Cytosolic Ca2+ 5 G-actin moves

Motor Unit
When somatic neuron is activated, all the muscle fibers it innervates contract with all or none contractions. Innervation ratio: Ratio of motor neuron: muscle fibers. Fine neural control over the strength occurs when many small motor units are involved. Recruitment: Larger and larger motor units are activated to produce greater strength.

Motor Unit

(continued)

Each somatic neuron together with all the muscle fibers it innervates. Each muscle fiber receives a single axon terminal from a somatic neuron. Each axon can have collateral branches to innervate an equal # of fibers.

Motor Unit
Motor unit - One motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates Number of muscle fibers varies among different motor units Number of muscle fibers per motor unit and number of motor units per muscle vary widely
Muscles that produce precise, delicate movements contain fewer fibers per motor unit Muscles performing powerful, coarsely controlled movement have larger number of fibers per motor unit

Neuromuscular Junction

Region where the motor neuron stimulates the muscle fiber The neuromuscular junction is formed by : 1. End of motor neuron axon (axon terminal)

Terminals have small membranous sacs (synaptic vesicles) that contain the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) A specific part of the sarcolemma that contains ACh receptors

2. The motor end plate of a muscle

Though exceedingly close, axonal ends and muscle fibers are always separated by a space called the

synaptic cleft

Neuromuscular Junction

Function of Neuromuscular Junction

Pharmacology of the NMJ

Botulinum toxin blocks release of neurotransmitter at the NMJ so muscle contraction can not occur bacteria found in improperly canned food death occurs from paralysis of the diaphragm Curare (plant poison from poison arrows) causes muscle paralysis by blocking the ACh receptors used to relax muscle during surgery Neostigmine (anticholinesterase agent) blocks removal of ACh from receptors so strengthens weak muscle contractions of myasthenia gravis also an antidote for curare after surgery is finished

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLES

MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY

DEGENERATION OF MUSCLE TISSUE MAY BE INHERITED BODY DOES NOT PRODUCE THE PROTEIN DYSTROPHIN

MUSCLE CELL MEMBRANE DISTORTED

Disease characterized by a shortage of ACh receptors

Autoimmune disease

Body destroys its own Ach receptors

Interferes with neuromuscular junction events

Drooping eyelids, difficulty swallowing & talking, generalized weakness

MYASTHENIA GRAVIS

Receptors on muscle membrane for acetylcholine are destroyed

Normal receptor

Defective receptors

Muscle Twitch
A muscle twitch is the response of the muscle fibers of a motor unit to a single action potential of its motor neuron. (A single contractionrelaxation cycle)
The fibers contract quickly and then relax. Three Phases:

Latent Period the first few ms after stimulation when excitationcontraction is occurring
Period of Contraction cross bridges are active and the muscle shortens . Period of Relaxation Ca2+ is pumped back into SR and muscle tension decreases to baseline level

Factors Affecting Force of Muscle Contraction

Number of motor units recruited, recruitment also helps provide smooth muscle action rather than jerky movements The relative size of the muscle fibers the bulkier the muscle fiber (greater cross-sectional area), the greater its strength Asynchronous recruitment of motor units -while some motor units are active others are inactive - this pattern of firing provides a brief rest for the inactive units preventing fatigue

Degree of muscle stretch

Muscle Contractions of Different ForceForce Summation

Summation

means the adding together of individual twitch contractions to increase the intensity of overall muscle contraction.

Summation occurs in two ways: 1. By increasing the number of motor units contracting simultaneously, which is called multiple fiber summation, and 2. By increasing the frequency of contraction, which is called frequency summation and can lead to tetanization.

Multiple Fiber Summation

When the central nervous system sends a weak signal to contract a muscle, the smaller motor units of the muscle are stimulated. As the strength of the signal increases, larger and larger motor units begin to be excited. This is called the size principle. It allows the gradations of muscle force. Important feature of multiple fiber summation Asynchronous recruitment of motor units -while some motor units are active others are inactive - this pattern of firing provides a brief rest for the inactive units preventing fatigue and provides smooth contraction

Frequency Summation and Tetanization

Individual twitch contractions occurring one after another at low frequency of stimulation. As the frequency increases, new contraction occurs before the preceding one is over. As a result, the second contraction is added partially to the first, so that the total strength of contraction rises progressively with increasing frequency. At the highest frequency the successive contractions fuse together, and the whole muscle contraction becomes smooth and continuous, as shown in the figure. This is called tetanization

Twitch, Summation, and Tetanus

Incomplete tetanus:

Stimulator delivers an increasing frequency of electrical shocks.

Relaxation period shortens between twitches.

Strength of contraction increases.

Complete tetanus:

Fusion frequency of stimulation. No visible relaxation between twitches.

Smooth sustained contraction.

Treppe:- Staircase effect.

A phenomenon in w/c the strength of contraction increases to a

plateau

Due to increase in intracellular Ca2+.

Represents warm-up.

Twitch, Summation, and Tetanus

(continued)

Types of Muscle Contractions

Isometric: No change in length but tension increases

Postural muscles of body Concentric: Overcomes opposing resistance and muscle shortens Eccentric: Tension maintained but muscle lengthens

Isotonic: Change in length but tension constant

Muscle tone: Constant tension by muscles for long periods of time

Isotonic and Isometric Contraction

Isotonic contractions = a load is moved

concentric contraction = a muscle shortens to produce force and movement eccentric contractions = a muscle lengthens while maintaining force and movement tension is generated without muscle shortening maintaining posture & supports objects in a fixed position

Isometric contraction = no movement occurs

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Isometric Contractions
No change in overall muscle length

In isometric contractions, increasing muscle tension (force) is measured

Length-Tension Relationship

Strength of muscle contraction influenced by:

Frequency of stimulation. Thickness of each muscle fiber. Initial length of muscle fiber.

Ideal resting length:

Length which can generate maximum force. Few cross bridges can attach. No cross bridges can attach to actin.

Overlap too small:

No overlap:

Energy Sources

ATP provides immediate energy for muscle contractions from 3 sources

Creatine phosphate

During resting conditions stores energy to synthesize ATP Occurs in absence of oxygen and results in breakdown of glucose to yield ATP and lactic acid Requires oxygen and breaks down glucose to produce ATP, carbon dioxide and water More efficient than anaerobic

Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration

Metabolism of Skeletal Muscles

Oxygen debt:

Oxygen that was withdrawn from hemoglobin and myoglobin during exercise. Extra 02 required for metabolism tissue warmed during exercise. 02 needed for metabolism of lactic acid produced during anaerobic respiration.

When person stops exercising, rate of oxygen uptake does not immediately return to preexercise levels.

Returns slowly.

Metabolism of Skeletal Muscles

(continued)

Phosphocreatine (creatine phosphate):

Rapid source of renewal of ATP. ADP combines with creatine phosphate. Ready source of high-energy phosphate.

[Phosphocreatine] is 3 times [ATP].

Slow- and Fast-Twitch Fibers

Skeletal muscle fibers can be divided on basis of contraction speed:

Slow-twitch (type I fibers). Fast-twitch (type II fibers).

Differences due to different myosin ATPase isoenzymes that are slow or fast.

Slow- and Fast-Twitch Fibers

(continued)

Slow-twitch or high-oxidative (type I fibers):

High oxidative capacity for aerobic respiration. Resistant to fatigue. Contract more slowly, smaller in diameter

Have rich capillary supply. Numerous mitochondria and aerobic enzymes. High [myoglobin]. Red fibers.

Slow- and Fast-Twitch Fibers

Fast-twitch or low-oxidative (type IIX fibers):

White fibers. Adapted to respire anaerobically. Have large stores of glycogen. Have few capillaries. high activity of myosin ATPase, Have few mitochondria.

Extraocular muscles that position the eye. Sprint activity (basket ball, weight lifting, field hockey).

Intermediate (type II A) fibers:

Great aerobic ability. Resistant to fatigue.

Distribution of fast-twitch and slow twitch

vary genetically Most muscles have both but varies for each muscle Hypertrophies: Increases in muscle size Atrophies: Decreases in muscle size

Effects of exercise

Red Vs White meat

Red muscle fibers have more mitochondria than white Red has more enzymes for oxidative energy metabolism Red contract slowly, but sustain contraction for long time Bursts of action potentials are 10-20/sec Red found in antigravity muscles (leg muscles) White rely on anaerobic metabolism White can contract rapidly (30-60/sec) and powerfully but will fatigue rapidly White muscles are involved in escape reflexes (jumping) Alpha motor units in white are bigger, larger diameter, fast conducting axons

Characteristics of Muscle Fiber Types

Muscle Fatigue

Decreased capacity to work and reduced efficiency of performance Types: Psychological

Depends on emotional state of individual

Muscular

Results from ATP depletion

Occurs in neuromuscular junction due to lack of acetylcholine

Synaptic

Inability to contract after prolonged activity

central fatigue is feeling of tiredness and a desire to stop (protective mechanism) depletion of creatine phosphate decline of Ca+2 within the sarcoplasm Interruption of blood flow through a contracting muscle Insufficient oxygen or glycogen Buildup of lactic acid and ADP Insufficient release of acetylcholine from motor neurons

Factors that contribute to muscle fatigue

OXYGEN DEBT
For a muscle to return to its resting state
Lactic

The amount of oxygen required for these processes is termed the oxygen debt
Represents

acid must be removed O2 reserves must be replenished ATP reserves must be replenished Creatine phosphate must be replenished

the difference between the amount of O2 needed for aerobic muscle activity and the amount of O2 actually used All non-aerobic sources of ATP contribute to debt

Muscle Tone

Involuntary contraction of a small number of motor units. Results from a low rate of nerve impulses coming from the spinal cord

keeps muscles firm even though relaxed does not produce movement

Essential for maintaining posture (head upright) Important in maintaining blood pressure

tone of smooth muscles in walls of blood vessels

Atrophy and Hypertrophy

Atrophy

wasting away of muscles caused by disuse (disuse atrophy) or severing of the nerve supply (denervation atrophy) the transition to connective tissue can not be reversed

Hypertrophy
increase in the diameter of muscle fibers resulting from very forceful, repetitive muscular activity and an increase in myofibrils, SR & mitochondria. Hyperplasia of Muscle Fibers.

Increase number of muscle fibers

This increase in fiber number is called fiber hyperplasia. When it does occur, the mechanism is linear splitting of previously enlarged fibers.

Rigor Mortis

Rigor mortis is a state of muscular rigidity that begins 3-4 hours after death and lasts about 24 hours After death, Ca+2 ions leak out of the SR and allow myosin heads to bind to actin. Since ATP synthesis has ceased, cross bridges cannot detach from actin until proteolytic enzymes begin to digest the decomposing cells.

Physiology of Smooth Muscle

Contraction starts slowly & lasts longer

no transverse tubules & very little SR Ca+2 must flows in from outside

Calmodulin replaces troponin

Ca+2 binds to calmodulin turning on an enzyme (myosin light chain kinase) that phosphorylates the myosin head so that contraction can occur enzyme works slowly, slowing contraction

Two Types of Smooth Muscle

Visceral (single-unit)

In the walls of hollow viscera & small BV Autorhythmic Gap junctions cause fibers to contract in unison Individual fibers with own motor neuron ending Found in large arteries, large airways, iris & ciliary body

Multiunit

Multi vs. Single-Unit Muscle

Properties of Single-Unit Smooth Muscle

Gap junctions Graded Contractions

Pacemaker cells with spontaneous depolarizations Innervation to few cells

Tone = level of contraction without stimulation Increases/decreases in tension
Copyright

No recruitment
Vary intracellular calcium

Stretch Reflex
Relaxation in response to sudden or prolonged stretch

2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings.

Smooth Muscle

Does not contain sarcomeres. Contains > content of actin than myosin (ratio of 16:1). Myosin filaments attached at ends of the cell to dense bodies. Contains gap junctions.

Properties of Smooth Muscle

One nucleus Tropomyosin No troponin Dense bodies analogous to Z line Slow myosin ATPase Myosin has light chains Little sarcoplasmic reticulum

Smooth Muscle Contraction

Depends on rise in free intracellular Ca2+. Ca2+ binds with calmodulin.

Ca2+ calmodulin complex joins with and activates myosin light chain kinase. Myosin heads binds with actin.

Myosin heads are phosphorylated.

Relaxation occurs when Ca2+ concentration decreases.

Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Ca2+

Endoplasmic reticulum
Ca2+ Ca2+ Calmodulin

Ca-calmodulin MLCK

Unphosphorylated myosin light chain

Phosphorylated myosin light chain

No myosin ATPase activity

Myosin ATPase active

No crossbridge activity Smooth muscle cell

Crossbridge cycling Contraction

Smooth Muscle Cell

Spontaneous Depolarizations

Smooth Muscle Tone

Ca+2 moves slowly out of the cell

delaying relaxation and providing for state of continued partial contraction sustained long-term

Useful for maintaining blood pressure or a steady pressure on the contents of GI tract

Regulation of Contraction

Regulation of contraction due to

nerve signals from autonomic nervous system changes in local conditions (pH, O2, CO2, temperature & ionic concentrations) hormones (epinephrine -- relaxes muscle in airways & some blood vessels)

Cardiac muscle has properties of skeletal and smooth muscle.

It is found in the walls of the heart. It is highly organized and striated. These are similarities to skeletal muscle tissue. It can generate action potentials which spread throughout the walls of the heart. This is similar to single-unit smooth muscle.

Cardiac Muscle

Contain actin and myosin arranged in sarcomeres. Contract via slidingfilament mechanism. Adjacent myocardial cells joined by gap junctions.

APs spread through cardiac muscle through gap junctions. Behaves as one unit. All cells contribute to contraction.

Cardiac Muscle

Stress-relaxation response

when stretched, initially contracts & then tension decreases to what is needed stretch hollow organs as they fill & yet pressure remains fairly constant when empties, muscle rebounds & walls firm up

Muscle Comparisons

Regeneration of Muscle

Skeletal muscle fibers cannot divide after 1st year growth is enlargement of existing cells Cardiac muscle fibers cannot divide or regenerate all healing is done by fibrosis (scar formation) Smooth muscle fibers (regeneration is possible) cells can grow in size (hypertrophy) some cells (uterus) can divide (hyperplasia) new fibers can form from stem cells in BV walls

Aging and Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscle starts to be replaced by fat beginning at 30 use it or lose it Slowing of reflexes & decrease in maximal strength Change in fiber type to slow oxidative fibers may be due to lack of use or may be result of aging

Abnormal Contractions

Spasm = involuntary contraction of single muscle Cramp = a painful spasm Tic = involuntary twitching of muscles normally under voluntary control--eyelid or facial muscles Tremor = rhythmic, involuntary contraction of opposing muscle groups Fasciculation = involuntary, brief twitch of a motor unit visible under the skin

Muscle Fatigue

Any exercise induced reduction in the ability to maintain muscle to generate force or power.

Sustained muscle contraction fatigue is due to an accumulation of ECF K+.

Repolarization phase of AP.

During moderate exercise fatigue occurs when slowtwitch fibers deplete their glycogen reserve. Fast twitch fibers are recruited, converting glucose to lactic acid.

Interferes with Ca2+ transport. Muscle fatigue caused by changes in CNS rather than fatigue of muscles themselves.

Central fatigue: